【本刊讯】美国胡佛研究所网站2007年6月份刊登乔治·华盛顿大学政治学和国际关系教授亨利·诺(HenryR.Nau)撰写的一篇文章,题为《我们为什么在对外政策问题上争斗——不同的观点产生不同的结论》,全文如下:
我们为什么在对外政策问题上具有尖锐的分歧?一项容易做出的回答是,领导人在国外发生的事件问题上说谎。难道说,战争爆发前,托尼·布莱尔没有说,伊拉克能够在45分钟以内组装一件核武器吗?他显然是在撒谎,对吗?还有小布什。他的中情局局长当时说,有“灌篮高手”一样的准确度可以说,伊拉克拥有核武器。他对问题的认识显然比这要高明,对吗?
好了,也许是。但假如我们之所以有分歧,不是因为领导人很坏和说谎,而是由于他们像我们一样,对世界有不同的看法,其所搜集和强调的不同的事实导致不同的结论?萨达姆·侯赛因回避了联合国的核查。这是一个事实。但他是否隐藏了大规模杀伤性武器等东西?抑或,他的行为是否与受到外部压力的国家的任何领导人可能会采取的一样?对这些问题的回答属于诠释。一些人看了看伊拉克的杯子,看到的是一半装着大规模杀伤性武器;另一些人则断定,它一半是空的。
可以简化,但并不简单
世界上最复杂的问题莫过于外交事务。所要对付的不仅是灾难和疾病等自然事实,而且还有在改变自己主意和行为方面往往富于创造性的人们等社会事实。自然的事实——譬如一种病毒——不会如此。它们按照固定的规律行事。此外,社会事实扎根于不同文化之中。来自不同文化的人们对同样的事实做出不同的解释。一位虔诚的穆斯林在经过一座基督教教堂时看到的是什么?在一些情况下,就是不信教的组织。而一位虔诚的基督徒却不会这样看。作为个体的人们和不同的文化根据同样的一系列事实所产生的理解是多样的。由于这种严重的复杂性,我们究竟怎样才能认识国际事务?
我们进行简化。我们用标签和模型来应付这个世界。这些标签和模型指引我们了解到现实的一个特定的部分。我们无法看到整体,因此我们利用自己的学问、经验和判断力来选择方向,寻找我们从自己的世界观角度所看重的某些事实。在为写作林肯传记而搜集材料过程中,卡尔·桑德伯格写道:“任何处理如此浩瀚的史实的人都不能对其全部加以利用。……因此,他选择显而易见的、感人的和重要的东西。”我们之所以必须忽略一些事实,并不是因为我们无知,或者偏重于意识形态,而恰恰是由于我们只有把某种别的事物排除在外,才能认识某种事物。如果我们是万事通,那么在认识到什么对我们是重要的之前,我们就一无所知。而对我们来说重要的东西则是一个个人观点和判断力问题。因此,我们强调某些事实,而我们的对手往往强调另外一些事实,也许恰恰就是我们所忽略的那些。我们之所以得出不同的结论,不是因为我们掩盖事实或说谎,而是因为我们对世界的看法不同,因而断定另外一些事实更加重要。
请考虑一下与朝鲜开发核武器相关的4项事实——1994年以前积累达到武器等级的钚、1994年签订冻结钚生产计划的协议、90年代末启动一项单独的铀浓缩计划,以及2002年终止1994年达成的协议。认为与朝鲜直接谈判是解决这一问题的最佳途径的人们所强调的是第二项和第四项事实。冻结协议阻止了钚的进一步生产,因而限制了可以用来生产核武器的、合乎武器等级的钚的数量。这项协议的终止使朝鲜得以恢复钚的生产,并于2005年10月试验了一枚核弹。因此,从这一观点看来,协议的终止是错误的,尽管朝鲜当时已经开始实施了另外一项浓缩计划,因为后一项计划距离生产达到武器级别的材料还有很长的路要走。认为制裁和孤立是解决这一问题的最佳途径的人们所强调的是第一项和第三项事实。朝鲜在1994年以前就已经拥有达到武器等级的材料,利用这些材料,他们本来就能随时试验一枚核弹。此外,它启动铀浓缩计划,就违反了1994年达成的协议。因此,终止1994年的协议唯一做到的就是使反正都在发生的事情,即获取核武器的一项偷偷摸摸的计划明朗化。从这一观点看较好的做法是团结盟友并孤立朝鲜,直到它披露并取消所有的核武器计划。
这些立场仅仅是出于党派利益的考虑——一方支持克林顿总统的谈判政策,另一方支持布什总统的孤立政策吗?也许是,但我敢说,它们也是有关在国际事务中问题成因的不同观点的产物。一方认为,可以把朝鲜吸纳进来,通过谈判达成折中,从而说服其放弃核计划。另一方则认为,说服朝鲜放弃研制核武器的主要方法是对其加以孤立和制裁。前者并非不愿以武力相威胁,据说克林顿1994年就是这样做的;而后者也并非不愿意考虑谈判,就像布什2005年所做的那样(最新达成的协议是2007年2月份宣布的)。但着重点的相对差异则是明显的。
因此,所有领导人、分析家和公民在辩论外交事务的时候都进行简化。这就是我们的问题所在。我们忘记自己是在把问题简单化,并断言我们的洞察具有准确性和真理性。我们的反对者和我们有分歧,一定是邪恶或无能。今天有多少人说他们仇恨乔治·布什,或者在90年代仇恨比尔·克林顿呢?感情战胜了常理。由于我们必须进行简化,才能对世事有任何认识,所以干嘛不坚持到底?要让世界真正简单,并将其划分为两个集团,即善良并与我们意见一致的人们,和邪恶并与我们有分歧的人们。我们都因此而有罪。布什把问题过分地简单化,他在911事件后说:“没有和我们站在一起的人就是反对我们的。”但谴责布什言论的民主党人也把问题过分简化,说布什是邪恶的,说他在伊拉克战争问题上对我们撒谎。
我在本文中努力说明的是,伊拉克战争和几乎所有的外交政策问题首先都不涉及聪明和愚蠢的、或者诚实和欺诈的人性,而是视角和判断力的问题。人们竭力简化和认识这个非常复杂的世界。在此过程中,他们所强调的事实是不同的,即使他们了解的事实相同。例如,伊拉克战争的支持者们认为,有关萨达姆的大规模杀伤性武器的不完整的事实是证据,表明他正在隐藏的是什么。这场战争的反对者则认为,同样一些事实则是表明他不拥有这种武器的证据。
最终,人们为自己如何观察世界承担责任。我们简化和强调现实的不同方面,但这并非我们可以为自己推托道义上的责任寻找的借口。一些人的确说谎。我们必须就善恶作出判断。但在我们彼此谴责对方邪恶之前——我们在外交政策辩论中越来越迫不及待地这样做——人们对世界的不同看法、他们对事实,往往是同样一些事实的侧重点和解释的不同都是合理的,我们更多地了解这一点不是很好吗?
三项观点
国际关系理论家认为有三项主要途径,可以用来思考世界问题,对事实加以选择和评估。现实主义观点主要从权力斗争、联盟和武力威胁以及动武的角度思考世界问题。自由主义观点则较多地从扩大合作和贸易、谈判以及国际机构所体现的相互依赖角度看问题。概念观点,即政治学家们今天所说的建构主义或社会认同观点主要从人们和国家的信念——影响他们的论点和认同的思想、规范和价值观——角度看问题。我们当中的许多人都熟悉这些观点或者国际关系理论的简化形式(这些理论本身则具有无休止的复杂性),但我们可能并不完全了解它们对我们的日常辩论的直接影响。
按照现实主义的世界观,人民和各国所最担心的是自己的生存,他们寻求足够的军事力量和财富,以保护自己免遭可能的敌手的侵害。由于各国都是单独存在,所以它们必须照顾好自己的安全。没有合法权力的任何单一的中心,即全世界的急救电话,可以供它们在遭到袭击时拨打。从这种意义上讲,联合国并不是一个世界政府。一国政府对国内享有合法动武的垄断权。任何国内集团都不能合法地拿起武器反对国家。但联合国却不享有这种垄断权。只有经过安理会各大国同意,它才能够动武。联合国宪章第51项条款授权所有国家动武自卫,不论联合国赞成与否。国家实力决定着国际机构的运作方式,并捍卫着国家的价值观或特征。
因此,从这一观点看,世界是通过一场竞赛和军事与经济力量的平衡来运作,以保护国家的安全。弱国团结起来抵御强国,并竭尽全力避免强权成为公理。从这一观点看,911恐怖主义袭击事件看来就是“弱者使强者调转枪口打自己的一场战争……从而表明……最终并没有什么普世文明,而我们也不可以轻易地假定自己是其领袖。”现实主义观点把这起事件解释为弱者和强者之间的竞赛,其中除了国家能够做出决断的之外,并没有理所当然的普世权威。
自由主义观点从机构合作和世界秩序,而不是从物质争夺与平衡的角度看世界。它问道:国际生活为什么不能类似于国内生活,而后者当中存在着实施普遍规则和法律的单一权威。毕竟,有史以来,政府权力的范围不断扩展。村庄变成镇子,镇子变成城市,城市合并成州或国家,而今天,州又构成了民族国家或者联邦,譬如欧盟。社会为什么不能最终成为全球范围的,而公共机构和法律则在国际层次上占据主导地位,就像它们今天在国内层次上所做的一样?现代化推动我们朝着这一方向迈进。沟通(外交)、运输(贸易)、专业协会(学术团体)、城市化和工业化(官僚机构)、共同解决问题(法律)和环境保护(地球)相互依赖。通过这种依赖,世界变得越来越小。慢慢地,合作的习惯使国力的重要性和减弱,使意识形态上的分歧缩小。
从这一观点看,国家并非仅仅为了生存而谋求实力。它们也寻求组成更加完美的联盟。因此,911袭击并非标志着弱者与强者之间斗争的又一周期,而是标志着国际社会未能吸纳弱者,并解决他们的不满情绪问题。正如卡莱尔·墨菲在《华盛顿邮报》上就911事件发表的评论所说:“我们要想避免制造更多的恐怖分子,就必须以巴以双方都认为公平的方式解决其相互之间的冲突问题。”无视压迫和使人们边缘化,会酿成冲突。因此,阻止冲突的并非抗衡的力量,而是消除疏远,从而消灭冲突的根源。
社会认同观点从对话和有关价值观、规范和认同的争端角度看待世界。集团和国家如何看待自己和别人推动着其对武力的动用,及其在公共机构中的行为。国家并不仅仅谋求生存,而是谋求作为一种特殊的社会的生存——例如,是作为一个民主社会,还是作为一个政教合一的社会——它们利用国际机构来影响公共讨论,并形成共识。思想影响着权力和机构,而不是相反。
哪种观点比较重要?
人民和政治领导人是同时采用这些观点的。认真的人们是以多种方式看待世界的。他们根据不同的观点搜集和评估事实。但他们采取行动时,却必须做出选择。为什么?因为我们无法把重点放在一切事情上,而又做成任何具体的事情。我们也没有无限的资源可以做到一切。
因此,假如说美国总统今天需要你就在伊拉克问题上下一步怎么走提出建议,那么你是同意他的计划,即向巴格达增兵,以挫败教派极端分子的图谋呢,还是认为在伊拉克国内外举行的谈判比以往任何时候都更加紧迫,就像伊拉克问题研究小组所建议的那样?抑或你是要提醒他,没有该地区腐败减轻的和比较民主的国家,无论武力还是谈判都不会取得成功,就像他在2005年的就职演说中所说?
好了,大家会说,所有这一切都是必要的,布什总统实施了政策来解决其中所有的问题。但一些政策相互矛盾,另外一些占据首要位置。林肯曾说:“在就邪恶做出选择方面,[战争]可能并非总是最糟糕的。”尽管如此,战争加重了动荡,使伊拉克的民主变得比较艰难,而不是比较容易。虽然旨在结束阿以争端的谈判可能会减轻恐怖主义,但恐怖主义却可能会让谈判变得无用。克林顿总统于2000年12月经过斡旋,使阿以达成了一项协议,但结果六周后,它却遭到巴勒斯坦极端分子和以色列强硬派的破坏。不管这项协议多么值得达成,实际左右着力量对比的极端分子还是破坏了它。
因此,你必须告诉总统哪项政策比较重要,以及国家怎样才能为其付得起款。做到这一点是通过判断一项政策比另外一项重要。例如,你向总统建议说,在巴格达进行战争是一项重点,以削弱伊拉克和中东其它地方的极端分子,最终使温和派政府得以通过谈判找到能够持久的、促进长期经济发展和民主进步的和平解决办法。这一判断是现实主义的。它并没有无视自由主义的(谈判)和社会认同的(民主)因素,而只是说,必须动武才能平息极端主义,必须把它当作改善实际情况和为谈判以及长期发展提供便利的一条途径(从而阻止克林顿的经历重演)。或者作为一个相反的例子,你向总统建议说,正像伊拉克问题研究小组最近所做的那样,通过谈判为伊拉克问题找到一项地区性解决办法,并找到范围更加广泛的中东地区的和平方案,要比挫败极端分子占据更加优先的地位,因为这会使刺激极端主义的不满情绪得到缓和,使温和派得以恢复对安全和军队的控制,制止恐怖主义,并为经济增长和政治改革铺平道路。这种判断是自由主义的。但它并没有忽视现实主义的(极端分子)和社会认同的(改革)因素,而只是说,为在伊拉克人当中和巴以之间实现公平与公正而进行的谈判将使现有的政府合法化,从而赋予其权力,以平息暴力活动,寻求经济发展和促进民主改革。
你也许会问,从中东人权,尤其是妇女权利的角度看,这两项建议所关注的是什么?妇女们必须长期遭受苦难,等待极端主义失败,或者获得谈判的成果,然后才可望迎来民主改革吗?社会认同观点提供了向总统提出建议的第三条线索,它强调民主,而不是安全和谈判:要求推进宪法改革和选举,以提高伊拉克和中东各国政府的透明度和问责性,揭露极端主义和腐败,并增进信任,通过谈判实现持久的繁荣与和平。这就是布什行政当局在2003年到2006年期间实际实行的政策(还记得参加投票的人们沾满墨水的手指吗?)。而批评者则采取比较现实主义或自由主义的观点,抱怨说安全遭到忽略,或者外交谈判被推迟了。
各种观点还为另外一些辩论提供了解释。例如如何与中国打交道的问题。自由主义的做法认为,要与专制主义的中国谈判,以使之融入到世界经济之中,从而改革中国经济,并最终使其政治体制开放。但假如眼下,你使中国强大起来,但它仍然怀有或者开始怀有敌意,情况会如何?现实主义观点对其感到担忧,因而建议加强与日本和台湾的军事联盟,并抗衡中国的军事扩充,尤其是在台湾海峡的军事集结。人们也许会问,不论是按照自由主义还是现实主义的判断,对人权和保护中国持不同政见者的重视在哪里?这种注重并不存在,或者说,不像根据社会认同观点所做出的判断那样注重。在这种情况下,你就会向总统建议,要较多地重视中国的民主改革,支持北京的温和派,以缓和对台湾的咄咄逼人的政策,改善本地区有关共同的贸易和投资机遇的气氛,并最终超越领土和军事争端。在这个案例中,改变机构,并最终消除军事冲突的是思想,而不是由制度因素(例如缓和和武器控制等)来控制军事紧张关系,然后才改变政治思想。
伊拉克和“基地”组织之间的联系
情报的搜集生动地显示出事实与观点的实际情况。信息并非存在于真空之中,或者因其存在就出现在电脑屏幕上。你必须要求获得它,或者在某些地方点击鼠标,才能发现它。我是在白宫的国家安全委员会供职期间亲身领教到这一点的。一位情报官首次拜访了我。我天真地期望他就我的职责范围(即国际经济事务)内的事情对我做介绍。但他却问我对什么感兴趣。他问得对。他本来可以根据自认为最重要的事情对我作简报。但作为一位出色的公务员,他认识到,我是一届新当选的政府的成员,按照民主程序,这个政府有权安排工作重点。
有关伊拉克和“基地”组织之间的联系以及伊拉克的大规模杀伤性武器问题的情报也是如此。各种情报机构(为数众多)搜寻具体的事实。首先,他们之所以这样做,并不是因为他们具有政治意识,而是由于不得不这样做。他们如果不从某个问题(偏见)出发,那么以什么为开端呢?可以肯定,一些公务员具有露骨的政治意识,如果反对某些政策,就将其泄露出来。同样,获得任命的官员有时也很教条,死抱着与自己愿望相符的事实不放。但大多数公务员和出于政治考虑任命的官员则并不具有意识形态色彩。他们只不过对不同的事情感兴趣。
值得庆幸的是,这些分歧有助于做好情报工作。人们所希望的是,要有尽可能多的不同人员和机构,根据尽可能多的不同观点搜集事实。他们显然需要彼此沟通,共享这些不同的事实。这是911事件以前的情报搜集工作的一个缺点。这段时间既包括克林顿政府的8年——当时,一堵自我强加的法律墙壁把国内情报和国际情报的搜集隔离开——也包括布什政府工作的8个月——这时,新一届行政当局以怀疑态度看待上一届政府,用了几个月时间才把一切安排妥当。但这一缺陷已经得到纠正。但从情报的这种竞争性搜集中,你不可以期望或者加以矫正的是意见的一致性。如果这是国家情报局局长的目标,那么这个新的结构就会失灵。情报始终都会是不协调的一笔糊涂帐。情报领域中没有“灌篮高手”。正如《华盛顿邮报》专栏作家吉姆·霍格兰所明智地指出:“大多数时候,你都不会掌握完善的知识,可以据以做出决策。……十分重要的始终都将是,你要根据总是不完善的情报做出判断。”
在“基地”组织与伊拉克之间的联系问题上,决策者们根据相同的事实做出了不同的判断。国防部的决策者夸大了“基地”组织与伊拉克的接触,但国会等地方的批评者则说这些接触无关紧要。911问题委员会于2004年夏季发表的报告受到了普遍的赞扬,被认为是客观的,尽管它较多地责怪布什政府在事件发生前的8个月里在恐怖主义威胁问题上行动迟缓,而不是克林顿政府在8年期间的所作所为。报告说:“大约在这个时候(1997年),本·拉登向伊拉克政权发出了一些试探信号,主动表示愿意合作。但据报道,他并没有获得很大反响。”
1998年年中,情况有所转变,据说是伊拉克采取了主动行动。1998年3月,在拉登公开发表宣言,对美国发动圣战以后,据说两名“基地”组织成员前往伊拉克,会晤了伊拉克情报机构。7月份,一个伊拉克代表团访问了阿富汗,先是与塔利班,然后又与拉登会晤。消息人士称,这两次会晤当中的一次,但也许是两次,看来都是通过拉登驻埃及的代表扎瓦西里安排的。他与伊拉克人有着自己的联系。
1999年,在与塔利班之间的关系据说出现紧张的一个时期里,伊拉克官员与塔利班可能举行了类似的会晤。据报道,伊拉克官员表示愿意在伊拉克为拉登提供安全的庇护所。拉登拒绝了,看来是由于他判断,他在阿富汗的处境仍然比伊拉克要有利。这些报道谈到友好的接触,说在双方对美国的仇恨中,有一些共同的主题。但迄今为止,我们尚未看到证据,表明这些以及早些时候的接触曾经发展成一种合作关系。我们也没有见到证据,表明在策划和实施对美国的任何袭击方面,伊拉克与“基地”组织进行了合作。
反对决定开战的人们毫不犹豫地强调一项结论,即伊拉克和“基地”组织之间“不存在合作关系。”但开战决策的支持者们却对的确存在的接触,尤其是伊拉克1999年关于为拉登在伊拉克提供庇护所的建议感到纳闷。虽然拉登当时谢绝了这项建议,但它的确表明了进行合作的相当大的动机。毕竟,伊拉克是表示愿意成为容留和支持本·拉登和“基地”组织的又一个政府。
大规模杀伤性武器
入侵伊拉克以后(人们也许会争论说,这场入侵仅仅是为了在伊拉克全面搜寻大规模杀伤性武器),我们现在知道,萨达姆实际上并不拥有任何这种武器,尽管他的确拥有一些与制造这种武器相关的能力。这么说,发生了什么事情?政治领导人是故意操纵或捏造事实吗?虽然迄今为止,国会的调查并没有发现证据,表明布什或政府其他官员对情报机构施压,要求其提供他们想要找到的事实,但今天许多人断定,他们恰恰是这样做了。英国的许多人认为,布莱尔做了同样的事情,尤其因为他在声称伊拉克可能能够在45分钟内组装一枚核弹的文件夹上做了标记。政党的派性和政治上的考虑使这种结论得以做出。如果争论说,做出这种重要决策的动机是政治上的背信弃义,对我们会有什么好处?不会很多。如果法国、德国和俄罗斯的情报机构也断定萨达姆·侯赛因拥有大规模杀伤性武器,那么这些国家的领导人是否也操纵了事实?并非如此,因为这些领导人反对这场战争。比较可能的情况是,在这个问题上,双方的领导人对同样一些事实做出了不同的解释。推动领导人做出决策的是他们的观点,而不是政治因素。
布什政府的官员们把问题定义为进行反恐战争和阻止无赖国家获得大规模杀伤性武器,因为这些国家可能会将其转让给恐怖分子。在他们看来(伊拉克在10多年里的执拗立场也支持了这种看法),外交手段和国际上的制裁措施已经失败。伊拉克于1998年驱逐了联合国的核查人员。除了发射零星的几枚导弹之外,美国和联合国并没有采取什么措施。外交手段要想再次获得机会,就必须动用武力来使核查人员返回伊拉克,如果伊拉克不充分合作,就以入侵相威胁。可能的情况是,新保守派从一开始就拥有一项计划,要进攻巴格达,纠正他们所认为的老布什1991年没有干掉萨达姆所酿成的错误。外交政策所涉及的可能全都是血仇和精英阶层的个人政治斗争。但也许并不是。布什政府可能诚恳地相信,根据有关国际事务中的行为的动机的一项现实主义的评估,必须动用大规模的武力,才能使外交手段和国际机构产生作用。
他们在一个重要的方面是正确的。2002年秋季在波斯湾部署一支入侵部队,使1998年导弹发射所未能实现的目标得以实现。核查人员返回了伊拉克。外交手段重新获得机会。现在的问题是,要给核查人员多少时间来追查其所猜测的大规模杀伤性武器,以及最终是否可以信任萨达姆以及安理会的判断,即伊拉克已经全面地和可以核查地销毁了这种武器。使问题进一步复杂化的是,按照支持发动战争的人们的看法,法国和德国——它们都在安理会享有否决权——在伊拉克拥有很大的经济利益,这种利益既有合法的,所采取的形式是商业合同,也有非法的,即按照联合国石油换食品计划获取的贿赂。
反对开战的人们进行了辩解,支持继续进行核查,并要求在安理会中达成国际协议,以便使动武合法化。他们并不反对动武,同样,布什或者布莱尔政府的官员们也并不反对核查人员和外交手段所起的作用。但是,他们从自由主义观点出发对局势进行评估,注重外交手段和国际协议,认为萨达姆·侯赛因已经在很大程度上使国际社会感到满意,相信他没有任何大规模杀伤性武器,如果获得足够的时间,就会澄清剩下的不确定因素。他们比较愿意信任萨达姆,并且急于利用国际机构,即安理会的否决制度来推迟动武。如果说美国采取外交手段作为战争之外的折中办法的愿望不可信,那么联合国官员和反战人士动员武力的愿望也是不可信的。批评这场战争的人们从来都不承认动用入侵部队对于使联合国核查人员能够重新选择外交手段来说是必要的。但是,支持战争的人们同样从未阐明,核查所提供的什么证据会最终使他们感到满意,相信伊拉克已经充分解除核武装。战争的支持者和反对者双方都不原意采取鲜明的立场。这反映了他们对动用外交手段和武力的相对偏好。这是一个重点和观点的问题,而不是背信弃义和政治斗争的问题。
另外一些分析人士则强调行为主体所认同的特征的作用,认为决定着这场战争的因素主要是萨达姆的偏执狂。我们发现他并不拥有任何核武器。那么萨达姆真的一心想要获得核武器吗?他多次绕开核查人员。那么他是否终于愿意服从国际上的核查与规则了呢?也许对萨达姆来说,问题并不是大规模杀伤性武器本身,就像现实主义观点所认为的那样,也不是像自由主义观点所认为的那样,涉及遵守国际规则的问题,而是伊拉克按照使之与世界其于国家疏远的一种意识形态和规范的行为准则行事。简言之,伊拉克是根据其偏执狂的政治和统治者的指令行事,而不是按照获取大规模杀伤性武器或者最终满足联合国核查人员的要求的意图行事。
有关伊拉克行为的这种观念性看法的一些证据是存在的。伊拉克战争的很大的谜之一就是,萨达姆为什么毫无目的地放弃了一切,最终包括自己的生命,因为他并不拥有任何大规模杀伤性武器。现实主义者说,他决不会干这种事情。他是一个善于求生,而不是自取灭亡的人。但是,如果他知道自己没有这种武器,那么他为什么要使自己的政权承担风险而谎称自己拥有这种武器呢?虚张声势可能是合乎理性的,但是如果做到被识破的程度,就不是这样了。也许他并不知道自己是否拥有这种武器。而这就表明,他与自己的政权和国际社会失去联系。或者也许他仅仅不相信美国及其盟国会发动袭击,或者不相信法国和俄罗斯等支持伊拉克的国家会允许它们发动进攻。外交手段会挽救他的政权。但是,所有这些猜测都表明,他与外界失去了联系,表明萨达姆和其他当事者之间没有任何重要的共同探讨或者共识,因而不会通过共识找到和平解决争端的办法。自由主义和现实主义的因素——外交手段,甚至还有武力所带来的合理的威慑——根本没有机会发挥作用,因为其它因素压倒了它们。
当然,同样的观点也可以用来解释美国的行为。新保守派不切实际,从未认真考虑威胁有多么严重,或者需要派多少部队来应付这种威胁(现实主义观点所强调的重点),他们愿意接受的核查过程的具体结果是什么(自由主义观点强调的重点)。一直推动着他们行动的意识形态世界观对于其它国家和国际谈判代表是不信任的,除非他们具有类似的意识形态倾向。可以说,这种认同观点还推动着布什有关伊拉克和中东地区民主化的理论。按照这种观点,和平解决大规模杀伤性武器和阿以争端等严重政治争端的可能性很小,除非该地区各国政府也持有比较带有根本性的价值观,包括多元主义、人权和法治等。
采取自由主义观点的分析人士假设,外交手段和机构能够发挥作用,尽管存在这种意识形态或政权方面的差别。他们实际上争论说,这是采取外交的全部要点所在。正如伊拉克问题研究小组所说,人们专门与自己的敌人对话。较多地从认同角度而不是制度角度看问题的分析人士则怀疑,可以信任哪些国家来确保外交协议得以实施,尤其是在国际机构中。这些机构被具有不同的意识形态信仰和从属关系的各个国家所瓜分。尽管如此,从现实主义观点看待世界的另外一些分析人士断定,有关意识形态和民主的一切言论都仅仅是言论而已。思想是附带的现象,另外一些利益更重要。新保守派和布什仅仅用有关大规模杀伤性武器和民主的一大堆借口掩盖了自己的真实动机——推翻萨达姆和算老帐。由于没有找到任何大规模杀伤性武器,所以他们转而利用促进自由和民主作借口。
比较、评估、安排轻重缓急
各种观点提供了强有力的工具,以认识我们在外交政策问题上为什么有分歧。这些观点所说明的不仅是当代的,而且还有历来的辩论。诚实守信的人们在有关世界局势的主要原因的判断问题上发生分歧。认真的分析人士考虑所有的观点,从每种观点中搜集尽可能多的事实。但是,他们永远也无法搜集到所有的事实,因而他们仍然必须解释,哪些事实要比另外一些重要。由于他们不可避免地选择某种东西,以便哪怕是稍微获得一定的认识,所以它们也必然会做出不同的判断,因而意见不一。
与自然科学相比,社会科学,尤其是世界事务要复杂得多。它们的研究对象——人——具有自己的头脑,他们能够而且的确经常一时心血来潮就改变主意。我们怎样才能捕捉到这样一个世界运行的规律?我们基本上捕捉不到。我们采取不同的观点,根据这些观点的提示搜集事实,加以比较和评估,最终列出其中的重点。在此过程中,我们做出不同的判断,对不同的观点也有自己的侧重。奇迹在于,我们彼此之间的分歧并没有超过我们实际上的不同意见。
政治斗争不利于认识各种观点的作用。每一方都坚持认为,如果事实有利于自己一方的解释,就是不说自明的。最近的一个例子就是德高望重的前民主党国会议员和9.11问题委员会两主席之一李·汉密尔顿。在与该委员会的共和党主席一起出席2006年9月11日的一次记者招待会的时候,汉密尔顿说:“事实并不属于共和党,也不属于民主党。它们并不带有意识形态色彩。事实就是事实。”但是,很能说明问题的是,他发表这番评论是为了驳斥委员会的共和党主席的看法。虽然事实可能并不属于共和党或者民主党,但却必须由共和党人和民主党人来解释。汉密尔顿说出了我们大家在想要利用事实证明自己的观点的时候都说的话。我们都说,事实具有一位“灌篮高手”那样准确的概率。但实际情况并非如此。
鉴于这些复杂的情况,我们是否能够比较谦虚?我们能否在辩论中减少人身攻击,并尽量避免用所谓“全部”事实相互指责。在争论的问题上,反对我们的人们并非愚蠢或邪恶。他们是根据不同的观点发表看法,因此我们只有认真听取他们的意见,才能想象到他们所强调的是什么和如何强调,他们评估事实的方式与我们有什么不同。德高望重的纽约时报专栏作家戴维·布鲁克斯说明了,我们在提出自己的结论的时候全都利用观点。在就伊朗现任领导人提出问题的时候,他写道:
“他们对激励因素是否做出反应,是否遵循我们所说的私利的要求?……或者他们是在玩一种截然不同的游戏吗?占据着伊朗政权特权阶层这个黑洞的人们是否从事着以一种有关世界末日的时间框架为基础的宗教事业,他们是否受到我们根本无法揣摩的超自然的渴望驱使?”
布鲁克斯所谈论和对比的是有关伊朗领导集团的现实主义的观点(物质私利)和认同观点(宗教野心)。在同一篇文章中,他还提到第三种观点,即自由主义观点。他写道,许多知识精英都建议,要对伊朗领导层采取谨慎的看法:“要容忍文化上的差异,寻求理解感觉受到压迫的人们的反应,不要就人群做出判断,永远也不要批评别人的宗教。”虽然这些都是解决一个十分复杂的问题的可敬的途径,但它们彼此并不兼容。我们必须做出选择。布鲁克斯做出了自己的选择:
“穆斯林千年论者的思维习惯使之造成冲突的升级。……他们似乎满怀信心,认为自己能够占上风,因为他们愿意为自己的真理而死。他们看来并不感到被边缘化,而是蔑视我们,认为我们虚弱,怀疑我们做出还击的能力。……由于美国在伊拉克精疲力竭,……西方的政策正在随波逐流,倾向于采取遏制方针。……换言之,一项旨在对抗一个世俗的和官僚主义的敌人——苏联人——的政策现在将被用来对抗蒸蒸日上的、从事伊斯兰圣战的敌人。
这些不同的判断都是合乎逻辑的,可以在不对我们的政治对手加以贬低的情况下来认识。实际上,甚至可以说,我们要想以尽可能多的不同方式来看待世界,这些判断就都是必要的,因为我们不能按照世界的实际状况来看待它。虽然我们每个人,作为一个讲道德的人,都必须做出选择,但是我们大家全都能够从这些差别之中受益。我们可以感谢与我们有分歧的人们,因为他们提醒我们注意到,我们当中的任何人对于我们所栖息的这个世界,尤其是外交事务领域的真正本质的认识都是十分粗浅的。(尹宏毅译)
WhyWeFightOverForeignPolicy
ByHenryR.Nau
Differentperspectivesyielddifferentconclusions.
Whydowedisagreesostridentlyaboutforeignpolicy?Aneasyanswerisbecauseleaderslieabouteventsabroad.1TakethedecisiontoinvadeIraq.Didn’tTonyBlairsaybeforethewarthatIraqcouldassembleanuclearweaponin45minutes?Hewasobviouslylying,right?OrwhataboutGeorgeW.Bush,whoseciadirectorsaidatthetimethatitwasa“slamdunk”thatIraqhadnuclearweapons?Heobviouslyknewbetter.Didn’the?
Well,maybe.Butwhatifwedisagreenotbecauseleadersarewickedandliebutbecausethey,likewe,seetheworlddifferentlyandassembleandemphasizedifferentfactsthatleadtodifferentconclusions?SaddamHusseinevadeduninspectors.That’safact.Butwashehidingsomethinglikeweaponsofmassdestruction(wmd)?Orwashebehavingasmightanyleaderofacountrythatcomesunderexternalthreat?Answerstothosequestionsareinterpretations.SomelookedatIraq’sglassandsawitwashalffullofwmd;othersconcludedthatitwashalfempty.
Simplifybutnotsimple
Nosubjectintheworldisascomplexasforeignaffairs.Youaredealingnotjustwithnaturalfacts,suchasdisastersanddisease,butalsowithsocialfactssuchashumanbeingswhochangetheirmindsandbehavecreatively.Naturalfacts—likeavirus—don’tdothat.Theybehaveaccordingtofixedlaws.Further,socialfactsareembeddedindifferentcultures.Peoplefromdifferentculturesinterpretthesamefactsdifferently.WhatdoesadevoutMuslimseewhenheorshewalksbyaChristianchurch?Insomecases,aninfidelinstitution.NotexactlywhatadevoutChristiansees.Individualhumanbeingsanddiverseculturescreatemultiplemeaningsfromthesamesetoffacts.Giventhisenormouscomplexity,howdowemakeanysenseatalloutofinternationalaffairs?
Wesimplify.Weapproachtheworldwithlabelsandmodelsthatdirectustowardaparticularsliceofreality.Wecan’tseeitall,soweuseourlearning,experience,andjudgmenttoselectadirection,tolookforcertainfactsthatareimportanttousintermsofhowwebelievetheworldworks.SurveyingthematerialforhisbiographyofAbrahamLincoln,CarlSandburgwrotethat“anyonedealingwiththevastactualevidencecannotusethewholeofit...therefore...he...pickswhatisplain,moving,andimportant.”2Wehavetoneglectsomefactsnotbecauseweareignorantorideologicalbutpreciselybecausewecanknowsomethingonlyifweexcludesomethingelse.Ifwekneweverything,we’dknownothinguntilweknewwhatwasimportanttous—andwhat’simportanttousisamatterofpersonalperspectiveandjudgment.Thus,weemphasizecertainfacts,andouropponentsoftenemphasizeotherfacts,perhapstheveryoneswedeemphasize.Wereachdifferentconclusionsnotbecausewedissembleandliebutbecauseweseetheworlddifferentlyandjudgedifferentfactstobemoreimportant.
ConsiderfourfactsrelatedtoNorthKorea’sdevelopmentofnuclearweapons—theaccumulationofweapons-gradeplutoniumbefore1994,the1994agreementwhichfrozetheplutoniumproductionprogram,thestart-upinthelate1990sofaseparateuraniumenrichmentprogram,andtheterminationofthe1994agreementin2002.ThosewhobelievethatdirectnegotiationwithNorthKoreaisthebestwaytohandlethisissueemphasizethesecondandfourthfacts.Thefreezeagreementpreventedfurtherproductionofplutoniumandthuscappedtheamountofweapons-gradematerialsavailabletoproducenuclearweapons.TheterminationoftheagreementallowedNorthKoreatoresumeplutoniumproductionandtestabombinOctober2005.Thus,fromthispointofview,theterminationoftheagreementwasamistakeeventhoughNorthKoreahadbegunaseparateenrichmentprojectbecausethatprogramwasstillalongwayfromproducingweapons-gradematerials.3Thosewhobelievethatsanctionsandisolationarethebestwaytodealwiththeproblememphasizethefirstandthirdfacts.NorthKoreaalreadyhadweapons-gradematerialbefore1994andcouldhavetestedabombatanytimewiththatmaterial.Moreover,itbrokethe1994agreementbystartinguptheenricheduraniumprogram.Soterminatingthe1994agreementdidnothingexceptmakeexplicitwhatwasgoingonanyway,astealthprogramtoacquirenuclearweapons.BetterfromthispointofviewtorallyalliesandisolateNorthKoreauntilitdisclosedanddismantledallnuclearweaponsprograms.
Arethesepositionsjustpartisan—theonesupportingPresidentClinton’spolicyofnegotiation,theotherPresidentBush’spolicyofisolation?Possibly,butI’dwagertheyarealsotheproductofdifferentperspectivesaboutwhatcausesthingstohappenininternationalaffairs.OnebelievesthatNorthKoreacanbepersuadedtogiveupnuclearprogramsbyinclusionandnegotiatedcompromise,theotherthatNorthKoreacanbedissuadedfromnuclearweaponsprimarilybyisolationandmaterialsanctions.Thefirstisnotunwillingtothreatenforce,asClintonreportedlydidin1994,andthesecondisnotunwillingtoconsidernegotiations,asBushdidin2005(reachingthemostrecentagreementannouncedinFebruary2007).Buttherelativedifferenceinemphasisisclear.
Thus,allleaders,analystsandcitizenssimplifywhentheydebateforeignaffairs.Andthereinliesourproblem.Weforgetthatwearesimplifyingandclaimveracityandtruthforourinsights.Ouropponentsmustbedepravedorincompetentiftheydonotagreewithus.HowmanypeoplesaytodaytheyhateGeorgeBushor,inthe1990s,BillClinton?Emotionstakeoverforcommonsense.Sincewehavetosimplifytomakeanysenseofworldaffairs,whynotgoalltheway?Maketheworldreallysimpleanddivideitintotwogroups,thosewhoaregoodandagreewithusandthosewhoareevilanddisagreewithus.We’reallguiltyofthis.Bushoversimplifiedwhenhesaidafter9/11,“thosewhoarenotwithusareagainstus.”ButDemocrats,whodeploreBush’scomment,oversimplifywhentheysayBushisevilandliedtousabouttheIraqWar.
Inthisessay,ItrytoshowthattheIraqWarandalmostallforeignpolicyissuesarenotinthefirstinstanceaboutbrilliantandstupidorhonestandmendaciouspeople.Theyarerathermattersofperspectiveandjudgment.Peoplestruggletosimplifyandmakesenseofanextraordinarilycomplexworld.Intheprocesstheyemphasizedifferentfactsevenwhentheyseethesamefacts.Forexample,proponentsoftheIraqWarsawtheincompletefactsaboutSaddamHussein’sweaponsofmassdestructionasevidenceofwhathewashiding.Opponentsofthewarsawthesamefactsasevidenceofwhathedidnothave.
Intheend,peopletakeresponsibilityforhowtheyseetheworld.Thatwesimplifyandemphasizedifferentaspectsofrealitydoesnotexcuseusfrommoralaccountability.Somepeopledolie.Wehavetomakejudgmentsaboutgoodandevil.Butbeforewedenounceeachotherasevil,whichseemstocomeearlierandearlierinourforeignpolicydebates,wouldn’titbeniceifweknewmoreaboutthedifferentwaysinwhichpeoplelegitimatelyseetheworldanddifferintheiremphasisandinterpretationofthefacts,oftenthesameones?
Threeperspectives
Theoristsofinternationalrelationshavelongrecognizedthreeprincipalwaystothinkabouttheworldandselectandevaluatefacts.Therealistperspectivethinksabouttheworldprimarilyintermsofastruggleforpower,alliances,andthethreatanduseofforce.Theliberalperspectivelooksatitmoreintermsofexpandingcooperationandcomplexinterdependencethroughtrade,negotiations,andinternationalinstitutions.Theideationalorwhatpoliticalscientiststodaycallconstructivistoridentityperspectiveseesitlargelyintermsofwhatpeopleandstatesbelieve—theideas,norms,andvaluestheysharethatshapetheirdiscourseandidentity.Manyofusarefamiliarwiththeseperspectivesorsimplifiedversionsofinternationalrelationstheories(thetheoriesthemselvesbecomeendlesslycomplex),butwemaynotfullyunderstandhowdirectlytheyinfluenceourday-to-daydebates.
Intherealistoutlook,peopleandstatesworrymostabouttheirsurvivalandseeksufficientmilitarypowerandwealthtoprotectthemselvesagainstwould-beadversaries.Becausestatesexistseparately,theyhavetolookoutfortheirownsecurity.Thereisnosinglecenteroflegitimatepower,aWorld911,thattheycancalluponwhenattacked.TheUnitedNations,inthissense,isnotaworldgovernment.Adomesticgovernmenthasamonopolyonthelegitimateuseofforce.Nodomesticgroupcantakeuparmslegitimatelyagainstthestate.ButtheUnitedNationshasnosuchmonopoly.ItcanuseforceonlywiththeconsentofthegreatpowersontheSecurityCouncil,andArticle51oftheunChartergivesallstatestherighttouseforcetodefendthemselveswhetherornottheUnitedNationsapproves.Statepowerdecidesthewayinternationalinstitutionsworkanddefendsthenation’svaluesoridentity.
Thustheworldfromthisperspectiveworksthroughacontestandbalancingofmilitaryandeconomicpowertoprotectnationalsecurity.Weakstatesuniteagainststrongstatesanddowhattheycantopreventmightfrommakingright.TheterroristattacksagainsttheUnitedStatesonSeptember11,2001,appearfromthisperspectiveas“awarinwhichtheweakturnedthegunsofthestrongagainstthem...showing...thatintheendthereisnosuchthingasauniversalcivilizationofwhichwealltooeasilyassumewearetherightfulleaders.”4Therealistperspectiveinterpretsthiseventasacontestbetweentheweakandthestronginwhichthereisnorightfuluniversalauthorityexceptthatwhicheachstatedecides.
Theliberalperspectiveseestheworldintermsofinstitutionalcooperationandworldorder,notmaterialstruggleandbalancing.Itaskswhyinternationallifecannotbesimilartodomesticlifeinwhichasingleauthoritydoesexistandenforcescommonrulesandlaw.Afterall,thescopeofgovernmentalauthorityhasexpandedsincethebeginningoftime.Villagesbecametowns,townscities,citiesmergedintostates,andtodaystatesconstitutenationsandunionssuchastheEuropeanUnion.Whycan’tsocietyeventuallybecomeglobal,andcommoninstitutionsandlawsprevailattheinternationalleveljustastheydotodayatthedomesticlevel?Modernizationpushesusinthisdirection.Theworldisbecomingsmallerthroughtheinterdependenceofcommunications(diplomacy),transportation(trade),professionalsocieties(epistemiccommunities),urbanizationandindustrialization(bureaucracies),commonproblemsolving(law),andenvironmentalprotection(planetearth).Thehabitofcooperationslowlydiminishesthesignificanceofpowerandideologicaldifferences.
Fromthisperspective,statesdon’tjustseekpowertosurvive.Theyalsoseektoformmoreperfectunions.Thus,theattacksof9/11representednotanothercycleinthestrugglebetweentheweakandstrongbutafailureoftheinternationalcommunitytoincludetheweakandaddresstheirgrievances.AsCaryleMurphycommentedabout9/11intheWashingtonPost(September16,2001),“ifwewanttoavoidcreatingmoreterrorists,wemustendtheIsraeli-Palestinianconflictinawaybothsidesseeasfair.”Ignoringoppressionandmarginalizingpeoplecreateconflict.Whatdetersconflict,then,isnotbalancingforcesbutremovingthealienationthatpromptstheconflictinthefirstplace.
Theidentityperspectiveseestheworldintermsofdialogueanddisputeaboutvalues,norms,andidentities.Howgroupsandstatesenvisionthemselvesandothersdrivestheiruseofpowerandtheirbehaviorincommoninstitutions.Statesdon’tjustseektosurvive;theyseektosurviveasaparticularkindofsociety—forexample,ademocraticoratheocraticsociety—andtheyuseinternationalinstitutionstoshapeacommondiscourseanddevelopsharedidentities.Ideasinfluencepowerandinstitutions,nottheotherwayaround.
Fromthisperspective,theattacksofSeptember11aretheconsequenceneitherofapowerstrugglenorunresolvedgrievancesbutofincompatibleorinsufficientlysharedidentities.AsJimHoaglandwroteinhisWashingtonPostcolumnnearlyayearafterthe9/11attacks(August1,2002),“TheremovalofSaddamHusseinandYasserArafatarenecessarybutnotsufficientconditions[toresolvetheMiddleEastconflict]...[and]theadministrationcannotrely...onanowdiscreditedpeaceprocess....OnlyalevelandclarityofAmericancommitmenttodemocraticchange...willcalmanevermoredeadlyconflict.”Theargumentdeemphasizestheuseofforce—theremovalofcertainleadersbyforceisnotenough—anddoesnotexpectmuchfromnegotiationsordiplomacy—cannotrelyonthediscreditedpeaceprocess.OnlyachangeintheidentityofregimesintheMiddleEastthatcreatesamorecommondialoguecandisciplinetheuseofforceandrealizethepromisesofdiplomacy.
Whichperspectivemattersmore?
Peopleandpoliticalleadersapplytheseperspectivessimultaneously.Seriouspeoplelookattheworldinmultipleways.Theycollectandevaluatefactsfromdifferentperspectives.Butwhentheyact,theyhavetochoose.Why?Becausewecan’tfocusoneverythingandgetanythingspecificdone,andwedon’thaveunlimitedresourcestodoeverything.
So,let’ssaythepresidentoftheUnitedStatesneedsyouradvicetodayaboutthenextstepsinIraq.DoyouagreewithhisplantosurgetroopsinBaghdadtodefeatthesectarianextremists,ordoyoubelievenegotiationswithinaswellasoutsideIraqaremoreurgentthanever,astheIraqStudyGrouprecommended?Ordoyouremindhimthatneithermilitaryforcenornegotiationscansucceedwithoutlesscorruptandmoredemocraticcountriesintheregion,ashearguedinhisinauguraladdressin2005?
Well,yousay,allofthesethingsarenecessary,andPresidentBushhimselfhasimplementedpoliciestoaddressallofthem.Butsomepoliciesconflictandotherscomefirst.“Inachoiceofevils,”AbrahamLincolnoncesaid,“[war]maynotalwaysbetheworst.”5Nevertheless,warincreasesinstability,andmakesdemocracyinIraqmore,notless,difficult.NegotiationstoendtheArab-Israelidisputemaylessenterrorism,butthenterrorismmaymakenegotiationsuseless.PresidentClintonmediatedanArab-IsraeliagreementinDecember2000onlytoseeitblownupsixweekslaterbyPalestinianextremists(intifada)andIsraelihardliners(electionofArielSharon).Howeverworthythatagreementwas,extremistswhoheldthebalanceofforcesonthegroundtorpedoedit.
Soyouhavetotellthepresidentwhichpolicymattersmoreandhowthecountrycanaffordit.Andyoudothatbyjudgingonepolicytobemoreimportantthananother.Asoneexample,youadvisethepresidentthatprosecutingthewarinBaghdadisaprioritytoweakenextremistsinIraqandelsewhereintheMiddleEast,eventuallyenablingmoderategovernmentstonegotiateapeacesettlementthatcanstickandencouragelonger-termeconomicdevelopmentanddemocraticprogress.Thisjudgmentisrealist.Itdoesn’tignoreliberal(negotiations)andidentity(democracy)factors,itjustsaysthattheuseofforceisneededtoquellextremismasawaytoimprovethesituationonthegroundandfacilitatenegotiationsandlongertermdevelopments(preventingarepeatofClinton’sexperience).Or,asacounterexample,youadvisethepresident,astheIraqStudyGrouprecentlydid,thatnegotiatingaregionalsolutiontotheIraqproblemandawiderMiddleEastpeacesettlementtakespriorityoverdefeatingextremistsbecauseitwillalleviatethegrievancesthatfuelextremism,enablingmoderatestoregaincontrolofsecurityandmilitaryforces,shutdownterrorism,andopenthewaytoeconomicgrowthandpoliticalreforms.Thisjudgmentisliberal.Again,itdoesn’tignorerealist(extremists)andidentity(reforms)factors,itjustsaysthatnegotiationstoachievefairnessandequityamongIraqisandbetweenPalestiniansandIsraeliswilllegitimateexistinggovernments,empoweringthemtoendviolence,pursueeconomicdevelopment,andpromotedemocraticreforms.
Where,youmightask,istheconcerninthesetworecommendationsforhumanrightsintheMiddleEast,especiallywomen’srights?Mustwomenbelongsufferingandwaitforthedefeatofextremistsorthefruitsofnegotiationsbeforetheycanexpectdemocraticreforms?Anidentityperspectiveoffersathirdlineofadvicetothepresidentwhichemphasizesdemocracyoversecurityandnegotiations:promoteconstitutionalreformsandelectionstomakegovernmentsinIraqandtheMiddleEastmoretransparentandaccountable,exposingextremismandcorruptionandbuildingtrusttonegotiatelastingprosperityandpeace.ThisisthepolicytheBushadministrationactuallypursuedfrom2003to2006(remembertheink-stainedfingersofpeoplewhovoted),whilecritics,takingamorerealistorliberalperspective,complainedthatsecuritywasbeingneglectedorthatdiplomaticnegotiationswerebeingpostponed.
ThesealternativepesrspectivesilluminatethecontoursoftheIraqdebate.Theneoconservatives,whodominatedpolicyin2003–2005,advocatedtheneedtooverthrowthegovernment(regimechange)toendthepursuitofwmdinIraqandsetthestageforwidernegotiationsintheMiddleEast.Thisidentityperspectiveisnowinretreat.Realiststrategistsopposedtheinvasionin2003becausetheyfearedtheinstabilitythatwouldresultfromthechangeofgovernments.Theystressedcontainmentandbalancingpowertoresolveconflicts,whatevertheideologyofgovernments.Theyarenowbackinfashion.Andliberalstrategists,whocriticizedthefailuretoavoidwarbynegotiationsandthentopushnegotiationsafterthewarwhenAmericawasstrong,nowpushtalkswithSyriaandIranwhentheUnitedStatesisweak.TheyseenegotiationsasawayoutofthewarevenasU.S.forcesdrawdownandradicalregimessuchasIranandSyriagaininfluence.Eachperspectiveadvocatesadifferentkey(cause)tounlocktheriddleofIraq—ideassuchasdemocracy,balancingsuchascontainment,andnegotiationstofacilitatecompromise.
Perspectivesilluminateotherdebates.TaketheissueofhowtodealwithChina.Liberalapproachessay,negotiatewithanauthoritarianChinatointegrateitintotheworldeconomy,therebyreformingChina’seconomyandeventuallyopeningupitspoliticalsystem.WhatifinthemeantimeyoumakeChinastrongeranditremainsorbecomeshostile?RealistperspectivesworryaboutthisandadvisestrengtheningmilitaryallianceswithJapanandSouthKoreaandbalancingChina’smilitarybuildup,especiallyintheTaiwanStrait.Whereineithertheliberalorrealistjudgment,onemightask,isanemphasisonhumanrightsandprotectionofdissidentsinChina?Well,it’snotthereornotthereasmuchasitwouldbeinajudgmentmadefromanidentityperspective.Inthiscase,youwouldadvisethepresidenttogivehigherprioritytodemocraticreformsinChina,backingmoderatesinBeijingtotemperaggressiveforeignpoliciestowardTaiwan,improvetheregionalclimateforcommontradeandinvestmentopportunities,andeventuallytranscendterritorialandmilitarydisputes.Inthiscase,ideaschangeinstitutionsandultimatelyresolvemilitaryconflicts,ratherthaninstitutionalfactors(e.g.,détente,armscontrol,etc.)managingmilitarytensionsandlaterchangingpoliticalideas.Whichfactors—material(power),interactive(institutions),orpolitical(ideas)—causeotherfactorsisacrucialjudgment,andpeopleofgoodwillandhighintelligencedifferinthejudgmentstheymake.
Let’slookmorecloselyattwocontroversialcasesofdifferingjudgmentsintheIraqWar—thequestionoflinksbetweenIraqandalQaeda,andtheissueofIraq’sweaponsofmassdestruction.
LinksbetweenIraqandalQaeda
Gatheringintelligenceillustratesvividlytherealityoffactsandperspectives.Informationdoesnotexistinavacuumorpopuponthecomputerscreenbecauseitisthere.Youhavetoaskforitorclickthemouseincertainplacestodiscoverit.IlearnedthislessonfirsthandwhileservingontheNationalSecurityCouncilintheWhiteHouse.Anintelligenceofficerpaidmeafirstvisit.Naïvely,Iexpectedhimtogivemeabriefingonthefactsinmyareaofresponsibility(whichwasinternationaleconomicaffairs).InsteadheaskedmewhatIwasinterestedin.Itwastherightquestion.Hecouldhavegivenmeabriefingbasedonwhathethoughtwasmostimportant.Butasagoodcivilservant(therearestillmany)herecognizedthatIwaspartofanewlyelectedadministrationthathadtherightbydemocraticprocesstosetpriorities.Eitherway,theintelligenceofficerorIwouldselectandgolookforcertainfactsdependinguponwhatwewereinterestedin.
AndsoitwaswithintelligencegatheredaboutcontactsbetweenalQaedaandIraqandIraq’swmd.Variousintelligenceagencies(therearemany)wentafterspecificfacts.Inthefirstinstancetheydidnotdothisbecausetheywerepolitical.Theydiditbecausetheyhadto.Wherewouldtheystartwithoutsomequestion(bias)?Somecivilservants,tobesure,areoutrightpoliticalandleakpolicieswhentheyopposethem,justasappointedofficialsaresometimesdogmaticandinsistonfactsthatareconsistentwithwhattheyarelookingfor.Butmostcivilservantsandpoliticalappointeesarenotideological.Theyaresimplyinterestedindifferentthings,becausetheyhavetobeinterestedinsomethingtogatherandevaluateanyfactsatall.
Fortunately,thesedifferencesmakeforgoodintelligence.Youwantasmanydifferentpeopleoragenciesgatheringfactsfromasmanydifferentperspectivesaspossible.Clearlytheyneedtocommunicatewithoneanotherandsharethesedifferentfacts.Thatwasashortcomingintheintelligencegatheringbefore9/11,bothduringtheeightyearsoftheClintonadministration,whenaself-imposedlegalwallseparateddomesticandforeignintelligencegathering,andtheeightmonthsoftheBushadministrationwhenanewadministrationviewedthepoliciesofthepreviousadministrationwithskepticismandtookseveralmonthstogetitsownactinorder.Butthatshortcominghasbeencorrected.Theonethingyoucannotexpectorcorrectfromthiscompetitivegatheringofintelligenceisagreement.Ifthat’stheobjectiveofthedirectorofnationalintelligence,thenewstructurewillfail.Intelligencewillalwaysbediscordantandmuddled.Therearenoslamdunksinintelligence.AstheWashingtonPostcolumnistJimHoaglandwiselynotes(July29,2004),“Mostofthetimeyouarenotgoingtohaveperfectknowledgeformakingdecisions....Thekeypointisalwaysgoingtobethejudgmentyouthenmakefromwhatisalmostalwaysimperfectintelligence.”
OntheissuesofcontactsbetweenalQaedaandIraq,policymakersmadedifferentjudgmentsbasedonthesamefacts.PolicymakersintheDefenseDepartmentmadetoomuchofalQaedacontactswithIraq,butcriticsinCongressandelsewheremadetoolittleofthesecontacts.Here’swhatthe9/11Commissionsaidinitsreportissuedinsummer2004,areportwidelyregardedasobjectiveeventhoughitseemedtoblameBushmoreforeightmonthsofdawdlingontheterroristthreatthanClintonforeightyears:
aroundthistime[1997]BinLadensentoutanumberoffeelerstotheIraqiregime,offeringsomecooperation.Nonearereportedtohavereceivedasignificantresponse.
Inmid-1998,thesituationreversed:itwasIraqthatreportedlytooktheinitiative.InMarch1998,afterBinLaden’spublicfatwa[thedeclarationofaholywar]againsttheUnitedStates,twoalQaedamembersreportedlywenttoIraqtomeetwithIraqiintelligence.InJuly,anIraqidelegationtraveledtoAfghanistantomeetfirstwiththeTalibanandthenwithBinLaden.Sourcesreportedthatone,orperhapsboth,ofthesemeetingswereapparentlyarrangedthroughBinLaden’sEgyptiandeputy,Zawahiri,whohadtiesofhisowntotheIraqis.
SimilarmeetingsbetweenIraqiofficialsandBinLadenmayhaveoccurredin1999duringaperiodofsomereportedstrainswiththeTaliban.Accordingtothereporting,IraqiofficialsofferedBinLadensafehaveninIraq.BinLadendeclined,apparentlyjudgingthathiscircumstancesinAfghanistanremainedmorefavorablethantheIraqicircumstances.Thereportsdescribefriendlycontactsandindicatesomecommonthemesinbothsides’hatredoftheUnitedStates.Buttodatewehaveseennoevidencethattheseortheearliercontactseverdevelopedintoacollaborativeoperationalrelationship.NorhaveweseenevidenceindicatingthatIraqcooperatedwithalQaedaindevelopingorcarryingoutanyattacksagainsttheUnitedStates.6
Opponentsofthedecisiontogotowardidnothesitatetoemphasizetheconclusionthat“nocollaborativeoperationalrelationship”existedbetweenIraqandalQaeda.Butsupportersofthedecisionwonderedaboutthecontactsthatdidexist,especiallytheofferbyIraqin1999togivebinLadensafehaveninIraq.AlthoughbinLadendeclinedthatofferatthetime,theoffersuggestedaverysubstantialmotivationtocollaborate.Afterall,IraqwasofferingtobecomeanotherTalibangovernmenttoharborandsupportbinLadenandalQaeda.And,althoughbinLadensaidno,ifIraqofferedsafehavenonce,mightitnotdosoagain?Moreover,whatconstitutescollaborationintheshadowyworldofnonstateactors?Whatisthatthresholdandhowdoweknowwhenitiscrossed?IsitunreasonabletoconcludefromthisintelligencethatIraqandalQaedamightcollaborateoperationallyinthefuture?Isitunreasonabletoconcludethattheywon’t?Bothseemlikereasonedjudgmentsofthefactsmadefromdifferentperspectives.
Mypurposehereisnottoresolvethisdisputebut,onthecontrary,tonotethatitcannotberesolved,especiallynotbyclaimingthatthefactseitherwayarea“slamdunk.”Perspectivesinfluencedthesejudgmentsasmuchasfacts.Thoselookingatthisintelligencefromaliberalperspective,whichemphasizesinterdependentrelationshipsbetweenalQaedaandIraq,wouldbelookingforrepetitiveinteractionsandjointbehavior.Noconcreteintelligencethatconnectsthetwopartiesoperationally,noconnectionwarranted.Thoselookingatitfromarealistperspectivewouldpaymoreattentiontothebroaderstrategiccontextinwhichtheserelationshipsexisted.AlQaedaandIraqhadacommonenemyintheUnitedStatesandthoughtoncetocollaborateagainstthatenemy.Mighttheynotdosoagain,especiallyafter9/11(theearlierofferofsafehavencamein1999)?ThefirstwouldseenosignificantinteractionsbetweenalQaedaandIraq;thesecondwouldseeapotentialallianceandcommonadversaryagainsttheUnitedStates.
Stillothers,itmightberecalled,arguedthatIraqandalQaedawouldnevercollaboratebecauseonewassecularandtheothersectarian.Althoughmadebysomerealistcommentators,thisjudgmentisnotrealist.Itisanidentityjudgment.IraqandalQaedacannotcollaboratebecausetheirpoliticalidentitiesaretoodissimilar.Realistjudgmentswouldneverarguethatideologicalfactorsaremoreimportantthanstrategicones.Yet,inthisstatement,ideologicaldifferences(identity)betweenIraqandalQaedaaredrivingthemapartmorethanstrategic(realist)antagonismstowardtheUnitedStatesarebringingthemtogether.
Weaponsofmassdestruction
TheintelligenceaboutIraq’sweaponsofmassdestructionprovidesanotherinstanceofdifferingjudgmentsaboutthesamefacts.Wecan’tpossiblydojusticetothewholeissuehere.Butconsiderthefollowing.NotonlyAmerican,butallthemajorintelligenceservices(British,French,German,Russian,Chinese,Australian,etc.)concludedinearly2003thatSaddamHusseinpossessedweaponsofmassdestruction.7HansBlix,theheadoftheuninspectioneffortinIraq,reportedasmuchtotheSecurityCounciltwoweeksbeforetheinvasionbegan:“intelligenceagencieshaveexpressedtheviewtheproscribedprograms[inIraq]havecontinuedorrestartedinthisperiod[since1998].”“Itisfurthercontended,”henoted,“thatproscribedprogramsanditemsarelocatedinundergroundfacilities...andthatproscribeditemsarebeingmovedaroundIraq.”Fromthisinformation,Blixhimselfdrewthejudgmentthat,althoughIraqhadundertaken“asubstantialmeasureofdisarmament,”Iraq’sactions,“threetofourmonthsintothenewresolution[referringtounResolution1441],cannotbesaidtoconstituteimmediatecooperation,nordotheynecessarilycoverallareasofrelevance.”8
Thesewerethefactsbeforetheinvasion.Thereisnodoubtthatsomepolicymakerswentbeyondthefacts.Theyconcluded,asDirectorofCentralIntelligenceGeorgeTenetdid,thattheevidenceSaddamHusseinhadwmdwasaslamdunk.Butcriticsmakethesameslamdunkassessmentwhentheyclaim(inretrospect)thatthefactswereclearhedidnothavewmd.Tobesure,thereweredissentingviewsaboutSaddam’sweaponswithinintelligenceagencies.AsIhavealreadynoted,therealwaysare.Nevertheless,intelligenceagencies,likedecisionmakers,havetomakejudgmentsbecausethefactsalonedonotdecide.AllmajorwesternintelligenceagenciesmadethesamejudgmentthatSaddamHusseinhadweaponsofmassdestruction.Thatsuggeststheevidencebeforetheinvasionwasfairlyconvincing.Fair-mindedanalystsacknowledgeasmuch.AscolumnistJimHoaglandnotedintheWashingtonPost(July29,2004),“IfyoulookatthewaySaddamHusseinacted,anyreasonablepersonwouldhaveconcludedthathewashidingthoseweapons,justfromwhathesaidanddid.”
Aftertheinvasion(andonemightargueonlybecausetheinvasionallowedathoroughsearchofIraqforwmd),wenowknowthatSaddamHusseindidnothaveanyactualweapons,althoughhedidhavesomerelatedcapabilitiestomakesuchweapons.Sowhathappened?Didpoliticalleadersdeliberatelymanipulateormanufacturethefacts?AlthoughCongressionalinvestigationsthusfar(additionalonesarecomingunderthenewDemocraticCongress)havefoundnoevidencethatBushandotheradministrationofficialspressuredtheintelligenceagenciestocomeupwiththefactstheywanted,manytodayconcludethattheseofficialsdidjustthat.9ManyinBritainbelieveBlairdidthesamething,especiallywhenhehighlightedtheintelligencedossierthatclaimedIraqmightbeabletoassembleabombwithin45minutes.Partisanshipandpoliticsdrivesuchconclusions.Dowegainanythingbyarguingthatsuchweightydecisionsaredrivenbypoliticalperfidy?Notverymuch.IftheintelligenceservicesofFrance,Germany,andRussiaalsoconcludedthatSaddamHusseinhadwmd,didtheirleaderstoomanipulatethefacts?Hardly,sincetheseleadersopposedthewar.Morelikely,leadersonbothsidesoftheissuesimplyinterpretedthesamefactsdifferently.Perspective,notpolitics,droveleaders’decisions.
Bushofficialsdefinedtheproblemaswagingthewaronterrorandpreventingroguestatesfromacquiringwmd,whichtheymightpassontoterrorists.Intheirview(andmorethanadecadeofIraqiobstinacysupportsit),diplomacyandinternationalsanctionshadfailed.Iraqkickedoutuninspectorsin1998,andasidefromfiringafewerrantmissiles,theU.S.andundidnothingaboutit.Ifdiplomacywastohaveanotherchance,forcewouldhavetobeusedtogettheinspectorsbackintoIraqandthentothreatenIraqwithinvasionifitdidnotfullycooperate.It’spossiblethattheneoconshadaplanfromtheverybeginningtoattackBaghdadandcorrectthemistaketheybelievedBush’sfathermadein1991bynotgettingridofSaddamHussein.Maybeforeignpolicyisallaboutbloodfeudsandpersonalelitepolitics.Butmaybeitisnot.TheBushadministrationmayhavehonestlybelieved,basedonarealistassessmentofwhatdrivesbehaviorininternationalaffairs,thatamuchstrongerutilizationofforcewasnecessarytomakediplomacyandinternationalinstitutionswork.
Andinasignificantwaytheywereright.DeployinganinvasionforceinthePersianGulfinfall2002achievedwhatmissilefiringsin1998failedtoachieve.InspectorsreturnedtoIraq.Diplomacywasgivenanotherchance.NowtheissuewashowmuchtimetogivetheinspectorstotrackdownsuspectedwmdandwhetherintheendtotrustSaddamHusseinandthejudgmentoftheSecurityCouncilthatIraqhadfullyandverifiablydisarmed.Complicatingmattersfurther,aswarsupporterssawit,wasthefactthatFranceandRussia,eachofwhichhasavetoonSecurityCouncilaction,hadsubstantialeconomicstakesinIraq,bothlegitimateintheformofcommercialcontractsandillegitimateintheformofbribesextractedundertheunoil-for-foodprogram.
OpponentsofthedecisiontogotowarmadethecaseforcontinuinginspectionsandrequiringinternationalagreementintheSecurityCounciltolegitimizetheuseofforce.Theywerenotopposedtotheuseofforce,anymorethanBushorBlairofficialswereopposedtotheroleofinspectorsanddiplomacy.But,assessingthesituationmorefromaliberalperspectivethatemphasizesdiplomacyandinternationalagreement,theybelieved,asHansBlixintimatedinhisreport,thatSaddamHusseinhadgonealongwaytosatisfytheinternationalcommunitythathehadnowmdandwouldclarifyremaininguncertaintiesifhewasgivenenoughtime.TheyweremorewillingtotrustSaddamandmoreeagertouseinternationalinstitutions,namelythevetosystemintheSecurityCouncil,todelaytheuseofforce.IftheUnitedStateswassuspectinitsdesirefordiplomacy—justawaystationtowardwar,ascriticscontended—unofficialsandwaropponentsweresuspectintheirwillingnesstouseforce—notalastbutapastresort(nolongerapplicableinmodern-dayinternationalaffairs).Criticsofthewarneveracknowledgedthataninvasionforcewasnecessarytoretrievethediplomaticoptionofuninspectors.But,equally,supportersofthewarnevermadeclearwhatevidencefrominspectionswouldultimatelysatisfythemthatIraqhadfullydisarmed.Thereluctanceofbothopponentsandsupportersofwartocomecleanreflectstheirrelativepreferencefortheuseofdiplomacyandforce.Itisamatterofemphasisandperspective,notofbadfaithandpolitics.
OtheranalystsemphasizetheroleofactoridentitiesandseethewardeterminedlargelybySaddam’sparanoia.WasSaddamreallybentonacquiringnuclearweaponswhenwefindouthehadnone?Washeeventuallywillingtocomplywithinternationalinspectionsandruleswhenhedancedaroundtheinspectorssomanytimes?MaybetheissueforSaddamwasnotwmdperse,asrealistperspectivessawit,orcomplyingwithinternationalrules,asliberalperspectivessawit,butIraqoperatingaccordingtoanideologicalandnormativecodethatalienateditfromtherestoftheworld.Iraq,inshort,actedinaccordancewiththedictatesofitsparanoidpoliticsandrulerratherthananintentiontoacquirewmdoreventuallysatisfyuninspectors.
SomeevidenceforthisideationalviewofIraq’sbehaviorexists.OneofthegreatmysteriesoftheIraqwariswhySaddamHusseingaveupeverything,includingeventuallyhislife,fornothing,sincehehadnowmd.Thisissomethingrealistssaidhewouldneverdo.Hewasasurvivor,notsuicidal.Yet,ifheknewhedidnothavewmd,whydidheriskhisregimepretendinghedid?Abluffmayberational,butnotifitispressedtothepointofbeingcalled.Perhapshedidnotknowwhetherhehadwmd,whichthensuggestshewasdisconnectedfromhisownregimeaswellastheinternationalcommunity.Orperhapshejustdidn’tbelievetheU.S.anditsallieswouldattack,orthatFrance,Russia,andothersupporterswouldletthemattack.Diplomacywouldsavehisregime.Butallofthesespeculationssuggestthathewasoutoftouch;that,asidentityperspectivesargue,therewasnosignificantshareddiscourseorknowledgebetweenSaddamHusseinandotherplayersthatmighthaveledtoapeacefulresolutionofthedisputethroughcommonunderstandings.Liberalandrealistfactors—diplomacyandevenrationaldeterrencebyforce—neverhadachancetoworkbecauseidentityfactorsoverrodethem.
Thesameidentityperspective,ofcourse,canbeusedtoexplainU.S.behavior.Theneoconswereoutoftouchandneverseriouslyconsideredhowbigthethreatwasandhowmanytroopswouldbeneededtocontendwithit,whichrealistperspectivesstressed,orwhatspecificresultsoftheinspectionprocesstheywouldaccept,whichliberalperspectivesstressed.Theyweredrivenallalongbyanideologicalviewoftheworldthatdistrustedotherstatesandinternationalnegotiatorsunlesstheyweresimilarlyideologicallyoriented.Thisidentityperspective,itmightbeargued,alsodrivestheBushdoctrineofdemocratizingIraqandtheMiddleEastregion.Apeacefulsolutiontowmdorseriouspoliticaldisputes,suchastheArab-Israelidispute,isunlikely,accordingtothisview,unlessthegovernmentsintheregionsharemorefundamentalvaluesincludingpluralism,humanrights,andtheruleoflaw.
Analystsemployingaliberalperspectiveassumediplomacyandinstitutionscanworkinspiteofsuchideologicalorregimedifferences.Indeed,theyargue,that’sthewholepointofdiplomacy.AstheIraqStudyGroupargued,youtalkwithyourenemiesinparticular.Analystswhoseetheworldmoreinidentitythaninstitutionalterms,however,wonderwhichcountriescanbecountedontoensurethatdiplomaticagreementsareimplemented,especiallyininstitutionsthataredividedamongcountriesofdifferentideologicalpersuasionsandaffinities.Stillotheranalysts,whoseetheworldinrealistterms,concludethatallthetalkaboutideologyanddemocracyisjustthat,talk.Ideasareepiphenomenalandotherinterestsmattermore.NeoconsandBushsimplydisguisedtheirrealmotives—todeposeHusseinandsettleoldscores—withalotofrationalizationaboutwmdanddemocracy.Whennowmdwerefound,theyshiftedtheirrationaletopromotingfreedomanddemocracy.
Compare,evaluate,prioritize
Perspectivesprovideapowerfultoolforunderstandingwhywedisagreeaboutforeignpolicy.Theyilluminatenotonlycontemporarybuthistoricaldebates.10Peopleofgoodfaithdifferinthejudgmentstheymakeabouttheprincipalcausesofworldevents.Seriousanalystsconsiderallperspectivesandgatherasmanyfactsfromeachperspectiveastheycan.Buttheycannevergatherallthefacts,andtheymuststillinterpretwhichfactsaremoreimportantthanothers.Justastheyarecondemnedtoselectsomethinginordertounderstandanything,theyarealsocondemnedtomakedifferentjudgmentsandthustodisagree.
Yes,itispossibleandnecessarytonarrowdisagreements,toformulatehypothesesfromdifferentperspectivesabouthowtheworldworks,andtolookfornewfactsthatcanadjudicatebetweenalternativepropositions.Thatisthescientificmethod,andallseriouspeopleuseit.Butscientificmethodisnottruth.Itisatooltoanalyzeinarationalistorpositivistmanneraninfinitelycomplicatedworld.Evennaturalscientistsdemurfromdeclaringthattheyhavediscoveredthetruth.Theymaydemonstratethatapropositionisnotfalse,thatis,itseemstobeconsistentwiththewaytheworldis.Butallgoodnaturalscientistsknowthattheirpropositionsdonotcapturetherealworldasitactuallyis.Analternativepropositionmayalsobeconsistentwiththeirresults.Inphysics,quantummechanicsexplainssubatomicphenomenaonthebasisofprobability,whileNewtonianmechanicsexplainsplanetaryphenomenaonthebasisoffixedbodies.Boththeoriesworkwithintheirdomains,buttheworldstheypostulatearecompletelyincompatible.Theactualworldisobviouslysomethingdifferentfromeithertheory.SophysicistandmathematiciansarelookingforanothertheorythatmighttellusaboutaworldwhichaccountsforbothNewtonianandquantummechanicsandmuchmore.That’sstringtheory,butthere’snoguaranteethatitwillbethefinalwordeither.Ifwehavethatmuchtroubleknowingthewaythenaturalworldactuallyworks,whosepartsdonothaveawilloftheirown,shouldn’twebemoremodestaboutwhatwecanknowaboutthesocialworldofinternationalpolitics?
Thesocialsciences,especiallyworldaffairs,aremuchmorecomplicated.Thesubjectstheystudy—humanbeings—dohavemindsoftheirown,andtheycananddooftenchangetheirmindsonawhim.Howdowecapturethelawsbywhichsuchaworldworks?Forthemostpart,wedon’t.Weadoptdifferentperspectives,gatherfactssuggestedbythoseperspectives,compare,evaluate,andultimatelyprioritizethosefacts.Intheprocesswemakedifferentjudgmentsandgiveweighttodifferentperspectives.Themiracleisthatwedon’tdisagreemorethanweactuallydo.
Politicsworksagainsttherecognitionoftheroleofperspectives.Eachsideinsiststhatthefactsspeakforthemselveswhenthefactsfavoritsinterpretation.LeeHamilton,arespectedformerDemocraticcongressmanandco-chairofthe9/11Commission,gavearecentexample.AppearingataSeptember11,2006,pressconferencewithhisRepublicanco-chairofthe9/11Commission,ThomasKean,Hamiltonsaid:“FactsarenotRepublican,andthey’renotDemocratic.They’renotideological.Factsarefacts.”But,revealingly,hemadethiscommenttorebukehisRepublicanco-chair;theywerehavingadisputeaboutthefactsinanabcdocudrama,“ThePathto9/11.”FactsmaynotbeRepublicanorDemocratic,buttheyhavetobeinterpretedbyRepublicansandDemocrats.Hamiltonsaidwhatweallsaywhenwewanttoclaimthefactsforourpointofview.Wesaythefactsareaslamdunk.Buttheyneverare.
Giventhesecomplexities,couldwebemoremodest?Couldwetonedownthepersonalizationofdebate,aswellasallattemptstobeateachotherupwith“the”facts.Ouropponentsonanissuearenotstupidorevil.Theyspeakfromadifferentperspective,andwecanlistencarefullytothemtodivinehowandwheretheyemphasizeandevaluatefactsdifferentlythanwedo.DavidBrooks,therespectedNewYorkTimescolumnist,demonstrateshowwealluseperspectiveswhenwepresentourownconclusions.AskingaboutcurrentleadersinIran,hewrote(September21,2006):
Dotheyrespondtoincentivesandfollowthedictatesofwhatwecallself-interest?...Or,alternatively,aretheyplayinganentirelydifferentgame?ArethemenwhooccupytheblackholethatistheIranianpowereliteengagedinareligiousenterprisebasedonaneschatologicaltimeframeanddrivenbysupernaturallongingswecan’tbegintofathom?
Brooksisaddressingandcontrastingtherealist(materialself-interest)andidentity(religiousaspirations)perspectivesonIranianleadership.Inthesamearticle,hementionsathirdperspective,theliberalone.Manyintellectualelites,hewrites,counselacodeofcautiontowardtheIranianleadership:“Betolerantofculturaldifferences,seektounderstandtheresponsesofpeoplewhofeeloppressed,don’tjudgegroups,nevercriticizesomebodyelse’sreligion.”Theseareallrespectablewaystoaddressanenormouslycomplicatedproblem.Buttheyarenotcompatiblewithoneanother.Wehavetochoose.Brooksmakeshischoices:
TheMuslimmillenarianspossessahabitofmindthatcausesthemtoescalateconflicts....Theyseemconfidenttheycanprevail,owingtotheirwillingnesstodiefortheirtruth.Theydon’tseemtofeelmarginalizedbutlookdownonusasweak,anddoubtourabilitytostrikeback....WithAmericaexhaustedbyIraq,...Westernpolicyisdriftingtowardtheoption...thatiscontainment....Inotherwords,apolicythatwasdesignedtoconfrontasecular,bureaucraticfoe—theSoviets—willnowbeusedtoconfrontasurging,jihadistone.
ForBrooks,“ahabitofmind,”“asurging,jihadistone,”anidentityperspectivedrivesMuslimfundamentalists.Themillenariansdonotfeel“marginalized”becausetheyareweakorexcludedbyinternationaldiplomacyandinstitutions,asaliberalpointofviewmightemphasize.Rathertheyfeelstrongandempoweredbytheirideas,“theirtruth,”andarewillingtodieforit.Sotheywon’tbestoppedbyrealiststrategiesthattrytocontainorcounterbalancethem.Theirideasprecludecompromiseanddeterrence.
OtherswillcertainlydisagreewithBrooks.Buttheywilldosobymakingdifferentjudgmentsaboutthesamefacts.Theymayarguethatthejihadistmind-setcomesfrommarginalizationofIslamicgrievancesinthepastandmaybealleviatedbyinclusionandcompromiseinthefuture.Ortheymayconcludethatideologicalmind-setsdoeventuallyrespondtocontainmentandmaterialcounterpressures,justasGeorgeKennanpredictedin1947thatcommunistfundamentalistswouldeventuallymellowiftheUnitedStatescontainedSovietexpansioninEurope.
Thesedifferingjudgmentsarealllogicalandcanbeunderstoodwithoutdisparagingourpoliticalopponents.Indeed,onecanevenarguetheyareallnecessaryifwearegoingtoseetheworldinasmanydifferentwaysaspossible,becausewecannotseeitasitactuallyis.Whileeachofus,asamoralhumanbeing,hastomakeachoice,allofustogethercanbenefitfromthedifferences.Wecanthankthepeoplewedisagreewithbecausetheyremindusthatnoneofushasacorneronthetruenatureoftheworldweinhabit,especiallytheworldofforeignaffairs.
我们为什么在对外政策问题上具有尖锐的分歧?一项容易做出的回答是,领导人在国外发生的事件问题上说谎。难道说,战争爆发前,托尼·布莱尔没有说,伊拉克能够在45分钟以内组装一件核武器吗?他显然是在撒谎,对吗?还有小布什。他的中情局局长当时说,有“灌篮高手”一样的准确度可以说,伊拉克拥有核武器。他对问题的认识显然比这要高明,对吗?
好了,也许是。但假如我们之所以有分歧,不是因为领导人很坏和说谎,而是由于他们像我们一样,对世界有不同的看法,其所搜集和强调的不同的事实导致不同的结论?萨达姆·侯赛因回避了联合国的核查。这是一个事实。但他是否隐藏了大规模杀伤性武器等东西?抑或,他的行为是否与受到外部压力的国家的任何领导人可能会采取的一样?对这些问题的回答属于诠释。一些人看了看伊拉克的杯子,看到的是一半装着大规模杀伤性武器;另一些人则断定,它一半是空的。
可以简化,但并不简单
世界上最复杂的问题莫过于外交事务。所要对付的不仅是灾难和疾病等自然事实,而且还有在改变自己主意和行为方面往往富于创造性的人们等社会事实。自然的事实——譬如一种病毒——不会如此。它们按照固定的规律行事。此外,社会事实扎根于不同文化之中。来自不同文化的人们对同样的事实做出不同的解释。一位虔诚的穆斯林在经过一座基督教教堂时看到的是什么?在一些情况下,就是不信教的组织。而一位虔诚的基督徒却不会这样看。作为个体的人们和不同的文化根据同样的一系列事实所产生的理解是多样的。由于这种严重的复杂性,我们究竟怎样才能认识国际事务?
我们进行简化。我们用标签和模型来应付这个世界。这些标签和模型指引我们了解到现实的一个特定的部分。我们无法看到整体,因此我们利用自己的学问、经验和判断力来选择方向,寻找我们从自己的世界观角度所看重的某些事实。在为写作林肯传记而搜集材料过程中,卡尔·桑德伯格写道:“任何处理如此浩瀚的史实的人都不能对其全部加以利用。……因此,他选择显而易见的、感人的和重要的东西。”我们之所以必须忽略一些事实,并不是因为我们无知,或者偏重于意识形态,而恰恰是由于我们只有把某种别的事物排除在外,才能认识某种事物。如果我们是万事通,那么在认识到什么对我们是重要的之前,我们就一无所知。而对我们来说重要的东西则是一个个人观点和判断力问题。因此,我们强调某些事实,而我们的对手往往强调另外一些事实,也许恰恰就是我们所忽略的那些。我们之所以得出不同的结论,不是因为我们掩盖事实或说谎,而是因为我们对世界的看法不同,因而断定另外一些事实更加重要。
请考虑一下与朝鲜开发核武器相关的4项事实——1994年以前积累达到武器等级的钚、1994年签订冻结钚生产计划的协议、90年代末启动一项单独的铀浓缩计划,以及2002年终止1994年达成的协议。认为与朝鲜直接谈判是解决这一问题的最佳途径的人们所强调的是第二项和第四项事实。冻结协议阻止了钚的进一步生产,因而限制了可以用来生产核武器的、合乎武器等级的钚的数量。这项协议的终止使朝鲜得以恢复钚的生产,并于2005年10月试验了一枚核弹。因此,从这一观点看来,协议的终止是错误的,尽管朝鲜当时已经开始实施了另外一项浓缩计划,因为后一项计划距离生产达到武器级别的材料还有很长的路要走。认为制裁和孤立是解决这一问题的最佳途径的人们所强调的是第一项和第三项事实。朝鲜在1994年以前就已经拥有达到武器等级的材料,利用这些材料,他们本来就能随时试验一枚核弹。此外,它启动铀浓缩计划,就违反了1994年达成的协议。因此,终止1994年的协议唯一做到的就是使反正都在发生的事情,即获取核武器的一项偷偷摸摸的计划明朗化。从这一观点看较好的做法是团结盟友并孤立朝鲜,直到它披露并取消所有的核武器计划。
这些立场仅仅是出于党派利益的考虑——一方支持克林顿总统的谈判政策,另一方支持布什总统的孤立政策吗?也许是,但我敢说,它们也是有关在国际事务中问题成因的不同观点的产物。一方认为,可以把朝鲜吸纳进来,通过谈判达成折中,从而说服其放弃核计划。另一方则认为,说服朝鲜放弃研制核武器的主要方法是对其加以孤立和制裁。前者并非不愿以武力相威胁,据说克林顿1994年就是这样做的;而后者也并非不愿意考虑谈判,就像布什2005年所做的那样(最新达成的协议是2007年2月份宣布的)。但着重点的相对差异则是明显的。
因此,所有领导人、分析家和公民在辩论外交事务的时候都进行简化。这就是我们的问题所在。我们忘记自己是在把问题简单化,并断言我们的洞察具有准确性和真理性。我们的反对者和我们有分歧,一定是邪恶或无能。今天有多少人说他们仇恨乔治·布什,或者在90年代仇恨比尔·克林顿呢?感情战胜了常理。由于我们必须进行简化,才能对世事有任何认识,所以干嘛不坚持到底?要让世界真正简单,并将其划分为两个集团,即善良并与我们意见一致的人们,和邪恶并与我们有分歧的人们。我们都因此而有罪。布什把问题过分地简单化,他在911事件后说:“没有和我们站在一起的人就是反对我们的。”但谴责布什言论的民主党人也把问题过分简化,说布什是邪恶的,说他在伊拉克战争问题上对我们撒谎。
我在本文中努力说明的是,伊拉克战争和几乎所有的外交政策问题首先都不涉及聪明和愚蠢的、或者诚实和欺诈的人性,而是视角和判断力的问题。人们竭力简化和认识这个非常复杂的世界。在此过程中,他们所强调的事实是不同的,即使他们了解的事实相同。例如,伊拉克战争的支持者们认为,有关萨达姆的大规模杀伤性武器的不完整的事实是证据,表明他正在隐藏的是什么。这场战争的反对者则认为,同样一些事实则是表明他不拥有这种武器的证据。
最终,人们为自己如何观察世界承担责任。我们简化和强调现实的不同方面,但这并非我们可以为自己推托道义上的责任寻找的借口。一些人的确说谎。我们必须就善恶作出判断。但在我们彼此谴责对方邪恶之前——我们在外交政策辩论中越来越迫不及待地这样做——人们对世界的不同看法、他们对事实,往往是同样一些事实的侧重点和解释的不同都是合理的,我们更多地了解这一点不是很好吗?
三项观点
国际关系理论家认为有三项主要途径,可以用来思考世界问题,对事实加以选择和评估。现实主义观点主要从权力斗争、联盟和武力威胁以及动武的角度思考世界问题。自由主义观点则较多地从扩大合作和贸易、谈判以及国际机构所体现的相互依赖角度看问题。概念观点,即政治学家们今天所说的建构主义或社会认同观点主要从人们和国家的信念——影响他们的论点和认同的思想、规范和价值观——角度看问题。我们当中的许多人都熟悉这些观点或者国际关系理论的简化形式(这些理论本身则具有无休止的复杂性),但我们可能并不完全了解它们对我们的日常辩论的直接影响。
按照现实主义的世界观,人民和各国所最担心的是自己的生存,他们寻求足够的军事力量和财富,以保护自己免遭可能的敌手的侵害。由于各国都是单独存在,所以它们必须照顾好自己的安全。没有合法权力的任何单一的中心,即全世界的急救电话,可以供它们在遭到袭击时拨打。从这种意义上讲,联合国并不是一个世界政府。一国政府对国内享有合法动武的垄断权。任何国内集团都不能合法地拿起武器反对国家。但联合国却不享有这种垄断权。只有经过安理会各大国同意,它才能够动武。联合国宪章第51项条款授权所有国家动武自卫,不论联合国赞成与否。国家实力决定着国际机构的运作方式,并捍卫着国家的价值观或特征。
因此,从这一观点看,世界是通过一场竞赛和军事与经济力量的平衡来运作,以保护国家的安全。弱国团结起来抵御强国,并竭尽全力避免强权成为公理。从这一观点看,911恐怖主义袭击事件看来就是“弱者使强者调转枪口打自己的一场战争……从而表明……最终并没有什么普世文明,而我们也不可以轻易地假定自己是其领袖。”现实主义观点把这起事件解释为弱者和强者之间的竞赛,其中除了国家能够做出决断的之外,并没有理所当然的普世权威。
自由主义观点从机构合作和世界秩序,而不是从物质争夺与平衡的角度看世界。它问道:国际生活为什么不能类似于国内生活,而后者当中存在着实施普遍规则和法律的单一权威。毕竟,有史以来,政府权力的范围不断扩展。村庄变成镇子,镇子变成城市,城市合并成州或国家,而今天,州又构成了民族国家或者联邦,譬如欧盟。社会为什么不能最终成为全球范围的,而公共机构和法律则在国际层次上占据主导地位,就像它们今天在国内层次上所做的一样?现代化推动我们朝着这一方向迈进。沟通(外交)、运输(贸易)、专业协会(学术团体)、城市化和工业化(官僚机构)、共同解决问题(法律)和环境保护(地球)相互依赖。通过这种依赖,世界变得越来越小。慢慢地,合作的习惯使国力的重要性和减弱,使意识形态上的分歧缩小。
从这一观点看,国家并非仅仅为了生存而谋求实力。它们也寻求组成更加完美的联盟。因此,911袭击并非标志着弱者与强者之间斗争的又一周期,而是标志着国际社会未能吸纳弱者,并解决他们的不满情绪问题。正如卡莱尔·墨菲在《华盛顿邮报》上就911事件发表的评论所说:“我们要想避免制造更多的恐怖分子,就必须以巴以双方都认为公平的方式解决其相互之间的冲突问题。”无视压迫和使人们边缘化,会酿成冲突。因此,阻止冲突的并非抗衡的力量,而是消除疏远,从而消灭冲突的根源。
社会认同观点从对话和有关价值观、规范和认同的争端角度看待世界。集团和国家如何看待自己和别人推动着其对武力的动用,及其在公共机构中的行为。国家并不仅仅谋求生存,而是谋求作为一种特殊的社会的生存——例如,是作为一个民主社会,还是作为一个政教合一的社会——它们利用国际机构来影响公共讨论,并形成共识。思想影响着权力和机构,而不是相反。
哪种观点比较重要?
人民和政治领导人是同时采用这些观点的。认真的人们是以多种方式看待世界的。他们根据不同的观点搜集和评估事实。但他们采取行动时,却必须做出选择。为什么?因为我们无法把重点放在一切事情上,而又做成任何具体的事情。我们也没有无限的资源可以做到一切。
因此,假如说美国总统今天需要你就在伊拉克问题上下一步怎么走提出建议,那么你是同意他的计划,即向巴格达增兵,以挫败教派极端分子的图谋呢,还是认为在伊拉克国内外举行的谈判比以往任何时候都更加紧迫,就像伊拉克问题研究小组所建议的那样?抑或你是要提醒他,没有该地区腐败减轻的和比较民主的国家,无论武力还是谈判都不会取得成功,就像他在2005年的就职演说中所说?
好了,大家会说,所有这一切都是必要的,布什总统实施了政策来解决其中所有的问题。但一些政策相互矛盾,另外一些占据首要位置。林肯曾说:“在就邪恶做出选择方面,[战争]可能并非总是最糟糕的。”尽管如此,战争加重了动荡,使伊拉克的民主变得比较艰难,而不是比较容易。虽然旨在结束阿以争端的谈判可能会减轻恐怖主义,但恐怖主义却可能会让谈判变得无用。克林顿总统于2000年12月经过斡旋,使阿以达成了一项协议,但结果六周后,它却遭到巴勒斯坦极端分子和以色列强硬派的破坏。不管这项协议多么值得达成,实际左右着力量对比的极端分子还是破坏了它。
因此,你必须告诉总统哪项政策比较重要,以及国家怎样才能为其付得起款。做到这一点是通过判断一项政策比另外一项重要。例如,你向总统建议说,在巴格达进行战争是一项重点,以削弱伊拉克和中东其它地方的极端分子,最终使温和派政府得以通过谈判找到能够持久的、促进长期经济发展和民主进步的和平解决办法。这一判断是现实主义的。它并没有无视自由主义的(谈判)和社会认同的(民主)因素,而只是说,必须动武才能平息极端主义,必须把它当作改善实际情况和为谈判以及长期发展提供便利的一条途径(从而阻止克林顿的经历重演)。或者作为一个相反的例子,你向总统建议说,正像伊拉克问题研究小组最近所做的那样,通过谈判为伊拉克问题找到一项地区性解决办法,并找到范围更加广泛的中东地区的和平方案,要比挫败极端分子占据更加优先的地位,因为这会使刺激极端主义的不满情绪得到缓和,使温和派得以恢复对安全和军队的控制,制止恐怖主义,并为经济增长和政治改革铺平道路。这种判断是自由主义的。但它并没有忽视现实主义的(极端分子)和社会认同的(改革)因素,而只是说,为在伊拉克人当中和巴以之间实现公平与公正而进行的谈判将使现有的政府合法化,从而赋予其权力,以平息暴力活动,寻求经济发展和促进民主改革。
你也许会问,从中东人权,尤其是妇女权利的角度看,这两项建议所关注的是什么?妇女们必须长期遭受苦难,等待极端主义失败,或者获得谈判的成果,然后才可望迎来民主改革吗?社会认同观点提供了向总统提出建议的第三条线索,它强调民主,而不是安全和谈判:要求推进宪法改革和选举,以提高伊拉克和中东各国政府的透明度和问责性,揭露极端主义和腐败,并增进信任,通过谈判实现持久的繁荣与和平。这就是布什行政当局在2003年到2006年期间实际实行的政策(还记得参加投票的人们沾满墨水的手指吗?)。而批评者则采取比较现实主义或自由主义的观点,抱怨说安全遭到忽略,或者外交谈判被推迟了。
各种观点还为另外一些辩论提供了解释。例如如何与中国打交道的问题。自由主义的做法认为,要与专制主义的中国谈判,以使之融入到世界经济之中,从而改革中国经济,并最终使其政治体制开放。但假如眼下,你使中国强大起来,但它仍然怀有或者开始怀有敌意,情况会如何?现实主义观点对其感到担忧,因而建议加强与日本和台湾的军事联盟,并抗衡中国的军事扩充,尤其是在台湾海峡的军事集结。人们也许会问,不论是按照自由主义还是现实主义的判断,对人权和保护中国持不同政见者的重视在哪里?这种注重并不存在,或者说,不像根据社会认同观点所做出的判断那样注重。在这种情况下,你就会向总统建议,要较多地重视中国的民主改革,支持北京的温和派,以缓和对台湾的咄咄逼人的政策,改善本地区有关共同的贸易和投资机遇的气氛,并最终超越领土和军事争端。在这个案例中,改变机构,并最终消除军事冲突的是思想,而不是由制度因素(例如缓和和武器控制等)来控制军事紧张关系,然后才改变政治思想。
伊拉克和“基地”组织之间的联系
情报的搜集生动地显示出事实与观点的实际情况。信息并非存在于真空之中,或者因其存在就出现在电脑屏幕上。你必须要求获得它,或者在某些地方点击鼠标,才能发现它。我是在白宫的国家安全委员会供职期间亲身领教到这一点的。一位情报官首次拜访了我。我天真地期望他就我的职责范围(即国际经济事务)内的事情对我做介绍。但他却问我对什么感兴趣。他问得对。他本来可以根据自认为最重要的事情对我作简报。但作为一位出色的公务员,他认识到,我是一届新当选的政府的成员,按照民主程序,这个政府有权安排工作重点。
有关伊拉克和“基地”组织之间的联系以及伊拉克的大规模杀伤性武器问题的情报也是如此。各种情报机构(为数众多)搜寻具体的事实。首先,他们之所以这样做,并不是因为他们具有政治意识,而是由于不得不这样做。他们如果不从某个问题(偏见)出发,那么以什么为开端呢?可以肯定,一些公务员具有露骨的政治意识,如果反对某些政策,就将其泄露出来。同样,获得任命的官员有时也很教条,死抱着与自己愿望相符的事实不放。但大多数公务员和出于政治考虑任命的官员则并不具有意识形态色彩。他们只不过对不同的事情感兴趣。
值得庆幸的是,这些分歧有助于做好情报工作。人们所希望的是,要有尽可能多的不同人员和机构,根据尽可能多的不同观点搜集事实。他们显然需要彼此沟通,共享这些不同的事实。这是911事件以前的情报搜集工作的一个缺点。这段时间既包括克林顿政府的8年——当时,一堵自我强加的法律墙壁把国内情报和国际情报的搜集隔离开——也包括布什政府工作的8个月——这时,新一届行政当局以怀疑态度看待上一届政府,用了几个月时间才把一切安排妥当。但这一缺陷已经得到纠正。但从情报的这种竞争性搜集中,你不可以期望或者加以矫正的是意见的一致性。如果这是国家情报局局长的目标,那么这个新的结构就会失灵。情报始终都会是不协调的一笔糊涂帐。情报领域中没有“灌篮高手”。正如《华盛顿邮报》专栏作家吉姆·霍格兰所明智地指出:“大多数时候,你都不会掌握完善的知识,可以据以做出决策。……十分重要的始终都将是,你要根据总是不完善的情报做出判断。”
在“基地”组织与伊拉克之间的联系问题上,决策者们根据相同的事实做出了不同的判断。国防部的决策者夸大了“基地”组织与伊拉克的接触,但国会等地方的批评者则说这些接触无关紧要。911问题委员会于2004年夏季发表的报告受到了普遍的赞扬,被认为是客观的,尽管它较多地责怪布什政府在事件发生前的8个月里在恐怖主义威胁问题上行动迟缓,而不是克林顿政府在8年期间的所作所为。报告说:“大约在这个时候(1997年),本·拉登向伊拉克政权发出了一些试探信号,主动表示愿意合作。但据报道,他并没有获得很大反响。”
1998年年中,情况有所转变,据说是伊拉克采取了主动行动。1998年3月,在拉登公开发表宣言,对美国发动圣战以后,据说两名“基地”组织成员前往伊拉克,会晤了伊拉克情报机构。7月份,一个伊拉克代表团访问了阿富汗,先是与塔利班,然后又与拉登会晤。消息人士称,这两次会晤当中的一次,但也许是两次,看来都是通过拉登驻埃及的代表扎瓦西里安排的。他与伊拉克人有着自己的联系。
1999年,在与塔利班之间的关系据说出现紧张的一个时期里,伊拉克官员与塔利班可能举行了类似的会晤。据报道,伊拉克官员表示愿意在伊拉克为拉登提供安全的庇护所。拉登拒绝了,看来是由于他判断,他在阿富汗的处境仍然比伊拉克要有利。这些报道谈到友好的接触,说在双方对美国的仇恨中,有一些共同的主题。但迄今为止,我们尚未看到证据,表明这些以及早些时候的接触曾经发展成一种合作关系。我们也没有见到证据,表明在策划和实施对美国的任何袭击方面,伊拉克与“基地”组织进行了合作。
反对决定开战的人们毫不犹豫地强调一项结论,即伊拉克和“基地”组织之间“不存在合作关系。”但开战决策的支持者们却对的确存在的接触,尤其是伊拉克1999年关于为拉登在伊拉克提供庇护所的建议感到纳闷。虽然拉登当时谢绝了这项建议,但它的确表明了进行合作的相当大的动机。毕竟,伊拉克是表示愿意成为容留和支持本·拉登和“基地”组织的又一个政府。
大规模杀伤性武器
入侵伊拉克以后(人们也许会争论说,这场入侵仅仅是为了在伊拉克全面搜寻大规模杀伤性武器),我们现在知道,萨达姆实际上并不拥有任何这种武器,尽管他的确拥有一些与制造这种武器相关的能力。这么说,发生了什么事情?政治领导人是故意操纵或捏造事实吗?虽然迄今为止,国会的调查并没有发现证据,表明布什或政府其他官员对情报机构施压,要求其提供他们想要找到的事实,但今天许多人断定,他们恰恰是这样做了。英国的许多人认为,布莱尔做了同样的事情,尤其因为他在声称伊拉克可能能够在45分钟内组装一枚核弹的文件夹上做了标记。政党的派性和政治上的考虑使这种结论得以做出。如果争论说,做出这种重要决策的动机是政治上的背信弃义,对我们会有什么好处?不会很多。如果法国、德国和俄罗斯的情报机构也断定萨达姆·侯赛因拥有大规模杀伤性武器,那么这些国家的领导人是否也操纵了事实?并非如此,因为这些领导人反对这场战争。比较可能的情况是,在这个问题上,双方的领导人对同样一些事实做出了不同的解释。推动领导人做出决策的是他们的观点,而不是政治因素。
布什政府的官员们把问题定义为进行反恐战争和阻止无赖国家获得大规模杀伤性武器,因为这些国家可能会将其转让给恐怖分子。在他们看来(伊拉克在10多年里的执拗立场也支持了这种看法),外交手段和国际上的制裁措施已经失败。伊拉克于1998年驱逐了联合国的核查人员。除了发射零星的几枚导弹之外,美国和联合国并没有采取什么措施。外交手段要想再次获得机会,就必须动用武力来使核查人员返回伊拉克,如果伊拉克不充分合作,就以入侵相威胁。可能的情况是,新保守派从一开始就拥有一项计划,要进攻巴格达,纠正他们所认为的老布什1991年没有干掉萨达姆所酿成的错误。外交政策所涉及的可能全都是血仇和精英阶层的个人政治斗争。但也许并不是。布什政府可能诚恳地相信,根据有关国际事务中的行为的动机的一项现实主义的评估,必须动用大规模的武力,才能使外交手段和国际机构产生作用。
他们在一个重要的方面是正确的。2002年秋季在波斯湾部署一支入侵部队,使1998年导弹发射所未能实现的目标得以实现。核查人员返回了伊拉克。外交手段重新获得机会。现在的问题是,要给核查人员多少时间来追查其所猜测的大规模杀伤性武器,以及最终是否可以信任萨达姆以及安理会的判断,即伊拉克已经全面地和可以核查地销毁了这种武器。使问题进一步复杂化的是,按照支持发动战争的人们的看法,法国和德国——它们都在安理会享有否决权——在伊拉克拥有很大的经济利益,这种利益既有合法的,所采取的形式是商业合同,也有非法的,即按照联合国石油换食品计划获取的贿赂。
反对开战的人们进行了辩解,支持继续进行核查,并要求在安理会中达成国际协议,以便使动武合法化。他们并不反对动武,同样,布什或者布莱尔政府的官员们也并不反对核查人员和外交手段所起的作用。但是,他们从自由主义观点出发对局势进行评估,注重外交手段和国际协议,认为萨达姆·侯赛因已经在很大程度上使国际社会感到满意,相信他没有任何大规模杀伤性武器,如果获得足够的时间,就会澄清剩下的不确定因素。他们比较愿意信任萨达姆,并且急于利用国际机构,即安理会的否决制度来推迟动武。如果说美国采取外交手段作为战争之外的折中办法的愿望不可信,那么联合国官员和反战人士动员武力的愿望也是不可信的。批评这场战争的人们从来都不承认动用入侵部队对于使联合国核查人员能够重新选择外交手段来说是必要的。但是,支持战争的人们同样从未阐明,核查所提供的什么证据会最终使他们感到满意,相信伊拉克已经充分解除核武装。战争的支持者和反对者双方都不原意采取鲜明的立场。这反映了他们对动用外交手段和武力的相对偏好。这是一个重点和观点的问题,而不是背信弃义和政治斗争的问题。
另外一些分析人士则强调行为主体所认同的特征的作用,认为决定着这场战争的因素主要是萨达姆的偏执狂。我们发现他并不拥有任何核武器。那么萨达姆真的一心想要获得核武器吗?他多次绕开核查人员。那么他是否终于愿意服从国际上的核查与规则了呢?也许对萨达姆来说,问题并不是大规模杀伤性武器本身,就像现实主义观点所认为的那样,也不是像自由主义观点所认为的那样,涉及遵守国际规则的问题,而是伊拉克按照使之与世界其于国家疏远的一种意识形态和规范的行为准则行事。简言之,伊拉克是根据其偏执狂的政治和统治者的指令行事,而不是按照获取大规模杀伤性武器或者最终满足联合国核查人员的要求的意图行事。
有关伊拉克行为的这种观念性看法的一些证据是存在的。伊拉克战争的很大的谜之一就是,萨达姆为什么毫无目的地放弃了一切,最终包括自己的生命,因为他并不拥有任何大规模杀伤性武器。现实主义者说,他决不会干这种事情。他是一个善于求生,而不是自取灭亡的人。但是,如果他知道自己没有这种武器,那么他为什么要使自己的政权承担风险而谎称自己拥有这种武器呢?虚张声势可能是合乎理性的,但是如果做到被识破的程度,就不是这样了。也许他并不知道自己是否拥有这种武器。而这就表明,他与自己的政权和国际社会失去联系。或者也许他仅仅不相信美国及其盟国会发动袭击,或者不相信法国和俄罗斯等支持伊拉克的国家会允许它们发动进攻。外交手段会挽救他的政权。但是,所有这些猜测都表明,他与外界失去了联系,表明萨达姆和其他当事者之间没有任何重要的共同探讨或者共识,因而不会通过共识找到和平解决争端的办法。自由主义和现实主义的因素——外交手段,甚至还有武力所带来的合理的威慑——根本没有机会发挥作用,因为其它因素压倒了它们。
当然,同样的观点也可以用来解释美国的行为。新保守派不切实际,从未认真考虑威胁有多么严重,或者需要派多少部队来应付这种威胁(现实主义观点所强调的重点),他们愿意接受的核查过程的具体结果是什么(自由主义观点强调的重点)。一直推动着他们行动的意识形态世界观对于其它国家和国际谈判代表是不信任的,除非他们具有类似的意识形态倾向。可以说,这种认同观点还推动着布什有关伊拉克和中东地区民主化的理论。按照这种观点,和平解决大规模杀伤性武器和阿以争端等严重政治争端的可能性很小,除非该地区各国政府也持有比较带有根本性的价值观,包括多元主义、人权和法治等。
采取自由主义观点的分析人士假设,外交手段和机构能够发挥作用,尽管存在这种意识形态或政权方面的差别。他们实际上争论说,这是采取外交的全部要点所在。正如伊拉克问题研究小组所说,人们专门与自己的敌人对话。较多地从认同角度而不是制度角度看问题的分析人士则怀疑,可以信任哪些国家来确保外交协议得以实施,尤其是在国际机构中。这些机构被具有不同的意识形态信仰和从属关系的各个国家所瓜分。尽管如此,从现实主义观点看待世界的另外一些分析人士断定,有关意识形态和民主的一切言论都仅仅是言论而已。思想是附带的现象,另外一些利益更重要。新保守派和布什仅仅用有关大规模杀伤性武器和民主的一大堆借口掩盖了自己的真实动机——推翻萨达姆和算老帐。由于没有找到任何大规模杀伤性武器,所以他们转而利用促进自由和民主作借口。
比较、评估、安排轻重缓急
各种观点提供了强有力的工具,以认识我们在外交政策问题上为什么有分歧。这些观点所说明的不仅是当代的,而且还有历来的辩论。诚实守信的人们在有关世界局势的主要原因的判断问题上发生分歧。认真的分析人士考虑所有的观点,从每种观点中搜集尽可能多的事实。但是,他们永远也无法搜集到所有的事实,因而他们仍然必须解释,哪些事实要比另外一些重要。由于他们不可避免地选择某种东西,以便哪怕是稍微获得一定的认识,所以它们也必然会做出不同的判断,因而意见不一。
与自然科学相比,社会科学,尤其是世界事务要复杂得多。它们的研究对象——人——具有自己的头脑,他们能够而且的确经常一时心血来潮就改变主意。我们怎样才能捕捉到这样一个世界运行的规律?我们基本上捕捉不到。我们采取不同的观点,根据这些观点的提示搜集事实,加以比较和评估,最终列出其中的重点。在此过程中,我们做出不同的判断,对不同的观点也有自己的侧重。奇迹在于,我们彼此之间的分歧并没有超过我们实际上的不同意见。
政治斗争不利于认识各种观点的作用。每一方都坚持认为,如果事实有利于自己一方的解释,就是不说自明的。最近的一个例子就是德高望重的前民主党国会议员和9.11问题委员会两主席之一李·汉密尔顿。在与该委员会的共和党主席一起出席2006年9月11日的一次记者招待会的时候,汉密尔顿说:“事实并不属于共和党,也不属于民主党。它们并不带有意识形态色彩。事实就是事实。”但是,很能说明问题的是,他发表这番评论是为了驳斥委员会的共和党主席的看法。虽然事实可能并不属于共和党或者民主党,但却必须由共和党人和民主党人来解释。汉密尔顿说出了我们大家在想要利用事实证明自己的观点的时候都说的话。我们都说,事实具有一位“灌篮高手”那样准确的概率。但实际情况并非如此。
鉴于这些复杂的情况,我们是否能够比较谦虚?我们能否在辩论中减少人身攻击,并尽量避免用所谓“全部”事实相互指责。在争论的问题上,反对我们的人们并非愚蠢或邪恶。他们是根据不同的观点发表看法,因此我们只有认真听取他们的意见,才能想象到他们所强调的是什么和如何强调,他们评估事实的方式与我们有什么不同。德高望重的纽约时报专栏作家戴维·布鲁克斯说明了,我们在提出自己的结论的时候全都利用观点。在就伊朗现任领导人提出问题的时候,他写道:
“他们对激励因素是否做出反应,是否遵循我们所说的私利的要求?……或者他们是在玩一种截然不同的游戏吗?占据着伊朗政权特权阶层这个黑洞的人们是否从事着以一种有关世界末日的时间框架为基础的宗教事业,他们是否受到我们根本无法揣摩的超自然的渴望驱使?”
布鲁克斯所谈论和对比的是有关伊朗领导集团的现实主义的观点(物质私利)和认同观点(宗教野心)。在同一篇文章中,他还提到第三种观点,即自由主义观点。他写道,许多知识精英都建议,要对伊朗领导层采取谨慎的看法:“要容忍文化上的差异,寻求理解感觉受到压迫的人们的反应,不要就人群做出判断,永远也不要批评别人的宗教。”虽然这些都是解决一个十分复杂的问题的可敬的途径,但它们彼此并不兼容。我们必须做出选择。布鲁克斯做出了自己的选择:
“穆斯林千年论者的思维习惯使之造成冲突的升级。……他们似乎满怀信心,认为自己能够占上风,因为他们愿意为自己的真理而死。他们看来并不感到被边缘化,而是蔑视我们,认为我们虚弱,怀疑我们做出还击的能力。……由于美国在伊拉克精疲力竭,……西方的政策正在随波逐流,倾向于采取遏制方针。……换言之,一项旨在对抗一个世俗的和官僚主义的敌人——苏联人——的政策现在将被用来对抗蒸蒸日上的、从事伊斯兰圣战的敌人。
这些不同的判断都是合乎逻辑的,可以在不对我们的政治对手加以贬低的情况下来认识。实际上,甚至可以说,我们要想以尽可能多的不同方式来看待世界,这些判断就都是必要的,因为我们不能按照世界的实际状况来看待它。虽然我们每个人,作为一个讲道德的人,都必须做出选择,但是我们大家全都能够从这些差别之中受益。我们可以感谢与我们有分歧的人们,因为他们提醒我们注意到,我们当中的任何人对于我们所栖息的这个世界,尤其是外交事务领域的真正本质的认识都是十分粗浅的。(尹宏毅译)
WhyWeFightOverForeignPolicy
ByHenryR.Nau
Differentperspectivesyielddifferentconclusions.
Whydowedisagreesostridentlyaboutforeignpolicy?Aneasyanswerisbecauseleaderslieabouteventsabroad.1TakethedecisiontoinvadeIraq.Didn’tTonyBlairsaybeforethewarthatIraqcouldassembleanuclearweaponin45minutes?Hewasobviouslylying,right?OrwhataboutGeorgeW.Bush,whoseciadirectorsaidatthetimethatitwasa“slamdunk”thatIraqhadnuclearweapons?Heobviouslyknewbetter.Didn’the?
Well,maybe.Butwhatifwedisagreenotbecauseleadersarewickedandliebutbecausethey,likewe,seetheworlddifferentlyandassembleandemphasizedifferentfactsthatleadtodifferentconclusions?SaddamHusseinevadeduninspectors.That’safact.Butwashehidingsomethinglikeweaponsofmassdestruction(wmd)?Orwashebehavingasmightanyleaderofacountrythatcomesunderexternalthreat?Answerstothosequestionsareinterpretations.SomelookedatIraq’sglassandsawitwashalffullofwmd;othersconcludedthatitwashalfempty.
Simplifybutnotsimple
Nosubjectintheworldisascomplexasforeignaffairs.Youaredealingnotjustwithnaturalfacts,suchasdisastersanddisease,butalsowithsocialfactssuchashumanbeingswhochangetheirmindsandbehavecreatively.Naturalfacts—likeavirus—don’tdothat.Theybehaveaccordingtofixedlaws.Further,socialfactsareembeddedindifferentcultures.Peoplefromdifferentculturesinterpretthesamefactsdifferently.WhatdoesadevoutMuslimseewhenheorshewalksbyaChristianchurch?Insomecases,aninfidelinstitution.NotexactlywhatadevoutChristiansees.Individualhumanbeingsanddiverseculturescreatemultiplemeaningsfromthesamesetoffacts.Giventhisenormouscomplexity,howdowemakeanysenseatalloutofinternationalaffairs?
Wesimplify.Weapproachtheworldwithlabelsandmodelsthatdirectustowardaparticularsliceofreality.Wecan’tseeitall,soweuseourlearning,experience,andjudgmenttoselectadirection,tolookforcertainfactsthatareimportanttousintermsofhowwebelievetheworldworks.SurveyingthematerialforhisbiographyofAbrahamLincoln,CarlSandburgwrotethat“anyonedealingwiththevastactualevidencecannotusethewholeofit...therefore...he...pickswhatisplain,moving,andimportant.”2Wehavetoneglectsomefactsnotbecauseweareignorantorideologicalbutpreciselybecausewecanknowsomethingonlyifweexcludesomethingelse.Ifwekneweverything,we’dknownothinguntilweknewwhatwasimportanttous—andwhat’simportanttousisamatterofpersonalperspectiveandjudgment.Thus,weemphasizecertainfacts,andouropponentsoftenemphasizeotherfacts,perhapstheveryoneswedeemphasize.Wereachdifferentconclusionsnotbecausewedissembleandliebutbecauseweseetheworlddifferentlyandjudgedifferentfactstobemoreimportant.
ConsiderfourfactsrelatedtoNorthKorea’sdevelopmentofnuclearweapons—theaccumulationofweapons-gradeplutoniumbefore1994,the1994agreementwhichfrozetheplutoniumproductionprogram,thestart-upinthelate1990sofaseparateuraniumenrichmentprogram,andtheterminationofthe1994agreementin2002.ThosewhobelievethatdirectnegotiationwithNorthKoreaisthebestwaytohandlethisissueemphasizethesecondandfourthfacts.Thefreezeagreementpreventedfurtherproductionofplutoniumandthuscappedtheamountofweapons-gradematerialsavailabletoproducenuclearweapons.TheterminationoftheagreementallowedNorthKoreatoresumeplutoniumproductionandtestabombinOctober2005.Thus,fromthispointofview,theterminationoftheagreementwasamistakeeventhoughNorthKoreahadbegunaseparateenrichmentprojectbecausethatprogramwasstillalongwayfromproducingweapons-gradematerials.3Thosewhobelievethatsanctionsandisolationarethebestwaytodealwiththeproblememphasizethefirstandthirdfacts.NorthKoreaalreadyhadweapons-gradematerialbefore1994andcouldhavetestedabombatanytimewiththatmaterial.Moreover,itbrokethe1994agreementbystartinguptheenricheduraniumprogram.Soterminatingthe1994agreementdidnothingexceptmakeexplicitwhatwasgoingonanyway,astealthprogramtoacquirenuclearweapons.BetterfromthispointofviewtorallyalliesandisolateNorthKoreauntilitdisclosedanddismantledallnuclearweaponsprograms.
Arethesepositionsjustpartisan—theonesupportingPresidentClinton’spolicyofnegotiation,theotherPresidentBush’spolicyofisolation?Possibly,butI’dwagertheyarealsotheproductofdifferentperspectivesaboutwhatcausesthingstohappenininternationalaffairs.OnebelievesthatNorthKoreacanbepersuadedtogiveupnuclearprogramsbyinclusionandnegotiatedcompromise,theotherthatNorthKoreacanbedissuadedfromnuclearweaponsprimarilybyisolationandmaterialsanctions.Thefirstisnotunwillingtothreatenforce,asClintonreportedlydidin1994,andthesecondisnotunwillingtoconsidernegotiations,asBushdidin2005(reachingthemostrecentagreementannouncedinFebruary2007).Buttherelativedifferenceinemphasisisclear.
Thus,allleaders,analystsandcitizenssimplifywhentheydebateforeignaffairs.Andthereinliesourproblem.Weforgetthatwearesimplifyingandclaimveracityandtruthforourinsights.Ouropponentsmustbedepravedorincompetentiftheydonotagreewithus.HowmanypeoplesaytodaytheyhateGeorgeBushor,inthe1990s,BillClinton?Emotionstakeoverforcommonsense.Sincewehavetosimplifytomakeanysenseofworldaffairs,whynotgoalltheway?Maketheworldreallysimpleanddivideitintotwogroups,thosewhoaregoodandagreewithusandthosewhoareevilanddisagreewithus.We’reallguiltyofthis.Bushoversimplifiedwhenhesaidafter9/11,“thosewhoarenotwithusareagainstus.”ButDemocrats,whodeploreBush’scomment,oversimplifywhentheysayBushisevilandliedtousabouttheIraqWar.
Inthisessay,ItrytoshowthattheIraqWarandalmostallforeignpolicyissuesarenotinthefirstinstanceaboutbrilliantandstupidorhonestandmendaciouspeople.Theyarerathermattersofperspectiveandjudgment.Peoplestruggletosimplifyandmakesenseofanextraordinarilycomplexworld.Intheprocesstheyemphasizedifferentfactsevenwhentheyseethesamefacts.Forexample,proponentsoftheIraqWarsawtheincompletefactsaboutSaddamHussein’sweaponsofmassdestructionasevidenceofwhathewashiding.Opponentsofthewarsawthesamefactsasevidenceofwhathedidnothave.
Intheend,peopletakeresponsibilityforhowtheyseetheworld.Thatwesimplifyandemphasizedifferentaspectsofrealitydoesnotexcuseusfrommoralaccountability.Somepeopledolie.Wehavetomakejudgmentsaboutgoodandevil.Butbeforewedenounceeachotherasevil,whichseemstocomeearlierandearlierinourforeignpolicydebates,wouldn’titbeniceifweknewmoreaboutthedifferentwaysinwhichpeoplelegitimatelyseetheworldanddifferintheiremphasisandinterpretationofthefacts,oftenthesameones?
Threeperspectives
Theoristsofinternationalrelationshavelongrecognizedthreeprincipalwaystothinkabouttheworldandselectandevaluatefacts.Therealistperspectivethinksabouttheworldprimarilyintermsofastruggleforpower,alliances,andthethreatanduseofforce.Theliberalperspectivelooksatitmoreintermsofexpandingcooperationandcomplexinterdependencethroughtrade,negotiations,andinternationalinstitutions.Theideationalorwhatpoliticalscientiststodaycallconstructivistoridentityperspectiveseesitlargelyintermsofwhatpeopleandstatesbelieve—theideas,norms,andvaluestheysharethatshapetheirdiscourseandidentity.Manyofusarefamiliarwiththeseperspectivesorsimplifiedversionsofinternationalrelationstheories(thetheoriesthemselvesbecomeendlesslycomplex),butwemaynotfullyunderstandhowdirectlytheyinfluenceourday-to-daydebates.
Intherealistoutlook,peopleandstatesworrymostabouttheirsurvivalandseeksufficientmilitarypowerandwealthtoprotectthemselvesagainstwould-beadversaries.Becausestatesexistseparately,theyhavetolookoutfortheirownsecurity.Thereisnosinglecenteroflegitimatepower,aWorld911,thattheycancalluponwhenattacked.TheUnitedNations,inthissense,isnotaworldgovernment.Adomesticgovernmenthasamonopolyonthelegitimateuseofforce.Nodomesticgroupcantakeuparmslegitimatelyagainstthestate.ButtheUnitedNationshasnosuchmonopoly.ItcanuseforceonlywiththeconsentofthegreatpowersontheSecurityCouncil,andArticle51oftheunChartergivesallstatestherighttouseforcetodefendthemselveswhetherornottheUnitedNationsapproves.Statepowerdecidesthewayinternationalinstitutionsworkanddefendsthenation’svaluesoridentity.
Thustheworldfromthisperspectiveworksthroughacontestandbalancingofmilitaryandeconomicpowertoprotectnationalsecurity.Weakstatesuniteagainststrongstatesanddowhattheycantopreventmightfrommakingright.TheterroristattacksagainsttheUnitedStatesonSeptember11,2001,appearfromthisperspectiveas“awarinwhichtheweakturnedthegunsofthestrongagainstthem...showing...thatintheendthereisnosuchthingasauniversalcivilizationofwhichwealltooeasilyassumewearetherightfulleaders.”4Therealistperspectiveinterpretsthiseventasacontestbetweentheweakandthestronginwhichthereisnorightfuluniversalauthorityexceptthatwhicheachstatedecides.
Theliberalperspectiveseestheworldintermsofinstitutionalcooperationandworldorder,notmaterialstruggleandbalancing.Itaskswhyinternationallifecannotbesimilartodomesticlifeinwhichasingleauthoritydoesexistandenforcescommonrulesandlaw.Afterall,thescopeofgovernmentalauthorityhasexpandedsincethebeginningoftime.Villagesbecametowns,townscities,citiesmergedintostates,andtodaystatesconstitutenationsandunionssuchastheEuropeanUnion.Whycan’tsocietyeventuallybecomeglobal,andcommoninstitutionsandlawsprevailattheinternationalleveljustastheydotodayatthedomesticlevel?Modernizationpushesusinthisdirection.Theworldisbecomingsmallerthroughtheinterdependenceofcommunications(diplomacy),transportation(trade),professionalsocieties(epistemiccommunities),urbanizationandindustrialization(bureaucracies),commonproblemsolving(law),andenvironmentalprotection(planetearth).Thehabitofcooperationslowlydiminishesthesignificanceofpowerandideologicaldifferences.
Fromthisperspective,statesdon’tjustseekpowertosurvive.Theyalsoseektoformmoreperfectunions.Thus,theattacksof9/11representednotanothercycleinthestrugglebetweentheweakandstrongbutafailureoftheinternationalcommunitytoincludetheweakandaddresstheirgrievances.AsCaryleMurphycommentedabout9/11intheWashingtonPost(September16,2001),“ifwewanttoavoidcreatingmoreterrorists,wemustendtheIsraeli-Palestinianconflictinawaybothsidesseeasfair.”Ignoringoppressionandmarginalizingpeoplecreateconflict.Whatdetersconflict,then,isnotbalancingforcesbutremovingthealienationthatpromptstheconflictinthefirstplace.
Theidentityperspectiveseestheworldintermsofdialogueanddisputeaboutvalues,norms,andidentities.Howgroupsandstatesenvisionthemselvesandothersdrivestheiruseofpowerandtheirbehaviorincommoninstitutions.Statesdon’tjustseektosurvive;theyseektosurviveasaparticularkindofsociety—forexample,ademocraticoratheocraticsociety—andtheyuseinternationalinstitutionstoshapeacommondiscourseanddevelopsharedidentities.Ideasinfluencepowerandinstitutions,nottheotherwayaround.
Fromthisperspective,theattacksofSeptember11aretheconsequenceneitherofapowerstrugglenorunresolvedgrievancesbutofincompatibleorinsufficientlysharedidentities.AsJimHoaglandwroteinhisWashingtonPostcolumnnearlyayearafterthe9/11attacks(August1,2002),“TheremovalofSaddamHusseinandYasserArafatarenecessarybutnotsufficientconditions[toresolvetheMiddleEastconflict]...[and]theadministrationcannotrely...onanowdiscreditedpeaceprocess....OnlyalevelandclarityofAmericancommitmenttodemocraticchange...willcalmanevermoredeadlyconflict.”Theargumentdeemphasizestheuseofforce—theremovalofcertainleadersbyforceisnotenough—anddoesnotexpectmuchfromnegotiationsordiplomacy—cannotrelyonthediscreditedpeaceprocess.OnlyachangeintheidentityofregimesintheMiddleEastthatcreatesamorecommondialoguecandisciplinetheuseofforceandrealizethepromisesofdiplomacy.
Whichperspectivemattersmore?
Peopleandpoliticalleadersapplytheseperspectivessimultaneously.Seriouspeoplelookattheworldinmultipleways.Theycollectandevaluatefactsfromdifferentperspectives.Butwhentheyact,theyhavetochoose.Why?Becausewecan’tfocusoneverythingandgetanythingspecificdone,andwedon’thaveunlimitedresourcestodoeverything.
So,let’ssaythepresidentoftheUnitedStatesneedsyouradvicetodayaboutthenextstepsinIraq.DoyouagreewithhisplantosurgetroopsinBaghdadtodefeatthesectarianextremists,ordoyoubelievenegotiationswithinaswellasoutsideIraqaremoreurgentthanever,astheIraqStudyGrouprecommended?Ordoyouremindhimthatneithermilitaryforcenornegotiationscansucceedwithoutlesscorruptandmoredemocraticcountriesintheregion,ashearguedinhisinauguraladdressin2005?
Well,yousay,allofthesethingsarenecessary,andPresidentBushhimselfhasimplementedpoliciestoaddressallofthem.Butsomepoliciesconflictandotherscomefirst.“Inachoiceofevils,”AbrahamLincolnoncesaid,“[war]maynotalwaysbetheworst.”5Nevertheless,warincreasesinstability,andmakesdemocracyinIraqmore,notless,difficult.NegotiationstoendtheArab-Israelidisputemaylessenterrorism,butthenterrorismmaymakenegotiationsuseless.PresidentClintonmediatedanArab-IsraeliagreementinDecember2000onlytoseeitblownupsixweekslaterbyPalestinianextremists(intifada)andIsraelihardliners(electionofArielSharon).Howeverworthythatagreementwas,extremistswhoheldthebalanceofforcesonthegroundtorpedoedit.
Soyouhavetotellthepresidentwhichpolicymattersmoreandhowthecountrycanaffordit.Andyoudothatbyjudgingonepolicytobemoreimportantthananother.Asoneexample,youadvisethepresidentthatprosecutingthewarinBaghdadisaprioritytoweakenextremistsinIraqandelsewhereintheMiddleEast,eventuallyenablingmoderategovernmentstonegotiateapeacesettlementthatcanstickandencouragelonger-termeconomicdevelopmentanddemocraticprogress.Thisjudgmentisrealist.Itdoesn’tignoreliberal(negotiations)andidentity(democracy)factors,itjustsaysthattheuseofforceisneededtoquellextremismasawaytoimprovethesituationonthegroundandfacilitatenegotiationsandlongertermdevelopments(preventingarepeatofClinton’sexperience).Or,asacounterexample,youadvisethepresident,astheIraqStudyGrouprecentlydid,thatnegotiatingaregionalsolutiontotheIraqproblemandawiderMiddleEastpeacesettlementtakespriorityoverdefeatingextremistsbecauseitwillalleviatethegrievancesthatfuelextremism,enablingmoderatestoregaincontrolofsecurityandmilitaryforces,shutdownterrorism,andopenthewaytoeconomicgrowthandpoliticalreforms.Thisjudgmentisliberal.Again,itdoesn’tignorerealist(extremists)andidentity(reforms)factors,itjustsaysthatnegotiationstoachievefairnessandequityamongIraqisandbetweenPalestiniansandIsraeliswilllegitimateexistinggovernments,empoweringthemtoendviolence,pursueeconomicdevelopment,andpromotedemocraticreforms.
Where,youmightask,istheconcerninthesetworecommendationsforhumanrightsintheMiddleEast,especiallywomen’srights?Mustwomenbelongsufferingandwaitforthedefeatofextremistsorthefruitsofnegotiationsbeforetheycanexpectdemocraticreforms?Anidentityperspectiveoffersathirdlineofadvicetothepresidentwhichemphasizesdemocracyoversecurityandnegotiations:promoteconstitutionalreformsandelectionstomakegovernmentsinIraqandtheMiddleEastmoretransparentandaccountable,exposingextremismandcorruptionandbuildingtrusttonegotiatelastingprosperityandpeace.ThisisthepolicytheBushadministrationactuallypursuedfrom2003to2006(remembertheink-stainedfingersofpeoplewhovoted),whilecritics,takingamorerealistorliberalperspective,complainedthatsecuritywasbeingneglectedorthatdiplomaticnegotiationswerebeingpostponed.
ThesealternativepesrspectivesilluminatethecontoursoftheIraqdebate.Theneoconservatives,whodominatedpolicyin2003–2005,advocatedtheneedtooverthrowthegovernment(regimechange)toendthepursuitofwmdinIraqandsetthestageforwidernegotiationsintheMiddleEast.Thisidentityperspectiveisnowinretreat.Realiststrategistsopposedtheinvasionin2003becausetheyfearedtheinstabilitythatwouldresultfromthechangeofgovernments.Theystressedcontainmentandbalancingpowertoresolveconflicts,whatevertheideologyofgovernments.Theyarenowbackinfashion.Andliberalstrategists,whocriticizedthefailuretoavoidwarbynegotiationsandthentopushnegotiationsafterthewarwhenAmericawasstrong,nowpushtalkswithSyriaandIranwhentheUnitedStatesisweak.TheyseenegotiationsasawayoutofthewarevenasU.S.forcesdrawdownandradicalregimessuchasIranandSyriagaininfluence.Eachperspectiveadvocatesadifferentkey(cause)tounlocktheriddleofIraq—ideassuchasdemocracy,balancingsuchascontainment,andnegotiationstofacilitatecompromise.
Perspectivesilluminateotherdebates.TaketheissueofhowtodealwithChina.Liberalapproachessay,negotiatewithanauthoritarianChinatointegrateitintotheworldeconomy,therebyreformingChina’seconomyandeventuallyopeningupitspoliticalsystem.WhatifinthemeantimeyoumakeChinastrongeranditremainsorbecomeshostile?RealistperspectivesworryaboutthisandadvisestrengtheningmilitaryallianceswithJapanandSouthKoreaandbalancingChina’smilitarybuildup,especiallyintheTaiwanStrait.Whereineithertheliberalorrealistjudgment,onemightask,isanemphasisonhumanrightsandprotectionofdissidentsinChina?Well,it’snotthereornotthereasmuchasitwouldbeinajudgmentmadefromanidentityperspective.Inthiscase,youwouldadvisethepresidenttogivehigherprioritytodemocraticreformsinChina,backingmoderatesinBeijingtotemperaggressiveforeignpoliciestowardTaiwan,improvetheregionalclimateforcommontradeandinvestmentopportunities,andeventuallytranscendterritorialandmilitarydisputes.Inthiscase,ideaschangeinstitutionsandultimatelyresolvemilitaryconflicts,ratherthaninstitutionalfactors(e.g.,détente,armscontrol,etc.)managingmilitarytensionsandlaterchangingpoliticalideas.Whichfactors—material(power),interactive(institutions),orpolitical(ideas)—causeotherfactorsisacrucialjudgment,andpeopleofgoodwillandhighintelligencedifferinthejudgmentstheymake.
Let’slookmorecloselyattwocontroversialcasesofdifferingjudgmentsintheIraqWar—thequestionoflinksbetweenIraqandalQaeda,andtheissueofIraq’sweaponsofmassdestruction.
LinksbetweenIraqandalQaeda
Gatheringintelligenceillustratesvividlytherealityoffactsandperspectives.Informationdoesnotexistinavacuumorpopuponthecomputerscreenbecauseitisthere.Youhavetoaskforitorclickthemouseincertainplacestodiscoverit.IlearnedthislessonfirsthandwhileservingontheNationalSecurityCouncilintheWhiteHouse.Anintelligenceofficerpaidmeafirstvisit.Naïvely,Iexpectedhimtogivemeabriefingonthefactsinmyareaofresponsibility(whichwasinternationaleconomicaffairs).InsteadheaskedmewhatIwasinterestedin.Itwastherightquestion.Hecouldhavegivenmeabriefingbasedonwhathethoughtwasmostimportant.Butasagoodcivilservant(therearestillmany)herecognizedthatIwaspartofanewlyelectedadministrationthathadtherightbydemocraticprocesstosetpriorities.Eitherway,theintelligenceofficerorIwouldselectandgolookforcertainfactsdependinguponwhatwewereinterestedin.
AndsoitwaswithintelligencegatheredaboutcontactsbetweenalQaedaandIraqandIraq’swmd.Variousintelligenceagencies(therearemany)wentafterspecificfacts.Inthefirstinstancetheydidnotdothisbecausetheywerepolitical.Theydiditbecausetheyhadto.Wherewouldtheystartwithoutsomequestion(bias)?Somecivilservants,tobesure,areoutrightpoliticalandleakpolicieswhentheyopposethem,justasappointedofficialsaresometimesdogmaticandinsistonfactsthatareconsistentwithwhattheyarelookingfor.Butmostcivilservantsandpoliticalappointeesarenotideological.Theyaresimplyinterestedindifferentthings,becausetheyhavetobeinterestedinsomethingtogatherandevaluateanyfactsatall.
Fortunately,thesedifferencesmakeforgoodintelligence.Youwantasmanydifferentpeopleoragenciesgatheringfactsfromasmanydifferentperspectivesaspossible.Clearlytheyneedtocommunicatewithoneanotherandsharethesedifferentfacts.Thatwasashortcomingintheintelligencegatheringbefore9/11,bothduringtheeightyearsoftheClintonadministration,whenaself-imposedlegalwallseparateddomesticandforeignintelligencegathering,andtheeightmonthsoftheBushadministrationwhenanewadministrationviewedthepoliciesofthepreviousadministrationwithskepticismandtookseveralmonthstogetitsownactinorder.Butthatshortcominghasbeencorrected.Theonethingyoucannotexpectorcorrectfromthiscompetitivegatheringofintelligenceisagreement.Ifthat’stheobjectiveofthedirectorofnationalintelligence,thenewstructurewillfail.Intelligencewillalwaysbediscordantandmuddled.Therearenoslamdunksinintelligence.AstheWashingtonPostcolumnistJimHoaglandwiselynotes(July29,2004),“Mostofthetimeyouarenotgoingtohaveperfectknowledgeformakingdecisions....Thekeypointisalwaysgoingtobethejudgmentyouthenmakefromwhatisalmostalwaysimperfectintelligence.”
OntheissuesofcontactsbetweenalQaedaandIraq,policymakersmadedifferentjudgmentsbasedonthesamefacts.PolicymakersintheDefenseDepartmentmadetoomuchofalQaedacontactswithIraq,butcriticsinCongressandelsewheremadetoolittleofthesecontacts.Here’swhatthe9/11Commissionsaidinitsreportissuedinsummer2004,areportwidelyregardedasobjectiveeventhoughitseemedtoblameBushmoreforeightmonthsofdawdlingontheterroristthreatthanClintonforeightyears:
aroundthistime[1997]BinLadensentoutanumberoffeelerstotheIraqiregime,offeringsomecooperation.Nonearereportedtohavereceivedasignificantresponse.
Inmid-1998,thesituationreversed:itwasIraqthatreportedlytooktheinitiative.InMarch1998,afterBinLaden’spublicfatwa[thedeclarationofaholywar]againsttheUnitedStates,twoalQaedamembersreportedlywenttoIraqtomeetwithIraqiintelligence.InJuly,anIraqidelegationtraveledtoAfghanistantomeetfirstwiththeTalibanandthenwithBinLaden.Sourcesreportedthatone,orperhapsboth,ofthesemeetingswereapparentlyarrangedthroughBinLaden’sEgyptiandeputy,Zawahiri,whohadtiesofhisowntotheIraqis.
SimilarmeetingsbetweenIraqiofficialsandBinLadenmayhaveoccurredin1999duringaperiodofsomereportedstrainswiththeTaliban.Accordingtothereporting,IraqiofficialsofferedBinLadensafehaveninIraq.BinLadendeclined,apparentlyjudgingthathiscircumstancesinAfghanistanremainedmorefavorablethantheIraqicircumstances.Thereportsdescribefriendlycontactsandindicatesomecommonthemesinbothsides’hatredoftheUnitedStates.Buttodatewehaveseennoevidencethattheseortheearliercontactseverdevelopedintoacollaborativeoperationalrelationship.NorhaveweseenevidenceindicatingthatIraqcooperatedwithalQaedaindevelopingorcarryingoutanyattacksagainsttheUnitedStates.6
Opponentsofthedecisiontogotowardidnothesitatetoemphasizetheconclusionthat“nocollaborativeoperationalrelationship”existedbetweenIraqandalQaeda.Butsupportersofthedecisionwonderedaboutthecontactsthatdidexist,especiallytheofferbyIraqin1999togivebinLadensafehaveninIraq.AlthoughbinLadendeclinedthatofferatthetime,theoffersuggestedaverysubstantialmotivationtocollaborate.Afterall,IraqwasofferingtobecomeanotherTalibangovernmenttoharborandsupportbinLadenandalQaeda.And,althoughbinLadensaidno,ifIraqofferedsafehavenonce,mightitnotdosoagain?Moreover,whatconstitutescollaborationintheshadowyworldofnonstateactors?Whatisthatthresholdandhowdoweknowwhenitiscrossed?IsitunreasonabletoconcludefromthisintelligencethatIraqandalQaedamightcollaborateoperationallyinthefuture?Isitunreasonabletoconcludethattheywon’t?Bothseemlikereasonedjudgmentsofthefactsmadefromdifferentperspectives.
Mypurposehereisnottoresolvethisdisputebut,onthecontrary,tonotethatitcannotberesolved,especiallynotbyclaimingthatthefactseitherwayarea“slamdunk.”Perspectivesinfluencedthesejudgmentsasmuchasfacts.Thoselookingatthisintelligencefromaliberalperspective,whichemphasizesinterdependentrelationshipsbetweenalQaedaandIraq,wouldbelookingforrepetitiveinteractionsandjointbehavior.Noconcreteintelligencethatconnectsthetwopartiesoperationally,noconnectionwarranted.Thoselookingatitfromarealistperspectivewouldpaymoreattentiontothebroaderstrategiccontextinwhichtheserelationshipsexisted.AlQaedaandIraqhadacommonenemyintheUnitedStatesandthoughtoncetocollaborateagainstthatenemy.Mighttheynotdosoagain,especiallyafter9/11(theearlierofferofsafehavencamein1999)?ThefirstwouldseenosignificantinteractionsbetweenalQaedaandIraq;thesecondwouldseeapotentialallianceandcommonadversaryagainsttheUnitedStates.
Stillothers,itmightberecalled,arguedthatIraqandalQaedawouldnevercollaboratebecauseonewassecularandtheothersectarian.Althoughmadebysomerealistcommentators,thisjudgmentisnotrealist.Itisanidentityjudgment.IraqandalQaedacannotcollaboratebecausetheirpoliticalidentitiesaretoodissimilar.Realistjudgmentswouldneverarguethatideologicalfactorsaremoreimportantthanstrategicones.Yet,inthisstatement,ideologicaldifferences(identity)betweenIraqandalQaedaaredrivingthemapartmorethanstrategic(realist)antagonismstowardtheUnitedStatesarebringingthemtogether.
Weaponsofmassdestruction
TheintelligenceaboutIraq’sweaponsofmassdestructionprovidesanotherinstanceofdifferingjudgmentsaboutthesamefacts.Wecan’tpossiblydojusticetothewholeissuehere.Butconsiderthefollowing.NotonlyAmerican,butallthemajorintelligenceservices(British,French,German,Russian,Chinese,Australian,etc.)concludedinearly2003thatSaddamHusseinpossessedweaponsofmassdestruction.7HansBlix,theheadoftheuninspectioneffortinIraq,reportedasmuchtotheSecurityCounciltwoweeksbeforetheinvasionbegan:“intelligenceagencieshaveexpressedtheviewtheproscribedprograms[inIraq]havecontinuedorrestartedinthisperiod[since1998].”“Itisfurthercontended,”henoted,“thatproscribedprogramsanditemsarelocatedinundergroundfacilities...andthatproscribeditemsarebeingmovedaroundIraq.”Fromthisinformation,Blixhimselfdrewthejudgmentthat,althoughIraqhadundertaken“asubstantialmeasureofdisarmament,”Iraq’sactions,“threetofourmonthsintothenewresolution[referringtounResolution1441],cannotbesaidtoconstituteimmediatecooperation,nordotheynecessarilycoverallareasofrelevance.”8
Thesewerethefactsbeforetheinvasion.Thereisnodoubtthatsomepolicymakerswentbeyondthefacts.Theyconcluded,asDirectorofCentralIntelligenceGeorgeTenetdid,thattheevidenceSaddamHusseinhadwmdwasaslamdunk.Butcriticsmakethesameslamdunkassessmentwhentheyclaim(inretrospect)thatthefactswereclearhedidnothavewmd.Tobesure,thereweredissentingviewsaboutSaddam’sweaponswithinintelligenceagencies.AsIhavealreadynoted,therealwaysare.Nevertheless,intelligenceagencies,likedecisionmakers,havetomakejudgmentsbecausethefactsalonedonotdecide.AllmajorwesternintelligenceagenciesmadethesamejudgmentthatSaddamHusseinhadweaponsofmassdestruction.Thatsuggeststheevidencebeforetheinvasionwasfairlyconvincing.Fair-mindedanalystsacknowledgeasmuch.AscolumnistJimHoaglandnotedintheWashingtonPost(July29,2004),“IfyoulookatthewaySaddamHusseinacted,anyreasonablepersonwouldhaveconcludedthathewashidingthoseweapons,justfromwhathesaidanddid.”
Aftertheinvasion(andonemightargueonlybecausetheinvasionallowedathoroughsearchofIraqforwmd),wenowknowthatSaddamHusseindidnothaveanyactualweapons,althoughhedidhavesomerelatedcapabilitiestomakesuchweapons.Sowhathappened?Didpoliticalleadersdeliberatelymanipulateormanufacturethefacts?AlthoughCongressionalinvestigationsthusfar(additionalonesarecomingunderthenewDemocraticCongress)havefoundnoevidencethatBushandotheradministrationofficialspressuredtheintelligenceagenciestocomeupwiththefactstheywanted,manytodayconcludethattheseofficialsdidjustthat.9ManyinBritainbelieveBlairdidthesamething,especiallywhenhehighlightedtheintelligencedossierthatclaimedIraqmightbeabletoassembleabombwithin45minutes.Partisanshipandpoliticsdrivesuchconclusions.Dowegainanythingbyarguingthatsuchweightydecisionsaredrivenbypoliticalperfidy?Notverymuch.IftheintelligenceservicesofFrance,Germany,andRussiaalsoconcludedthatSaddamHusseinhadwmd,didtheirleaderstoomanipulatethefacts?Hardly,sincetheseleadersopposedthewar.Morelikely,leadersonbothsidesoftheissuesimplyinterpretedthesamefactsdifferently.Perspective,notpolitics,droveleaders’decisions.
Bushofficialsdefinedtheproblemaswagingthewaronterrorandpreventingroguestatesfromacquiringwmd,whichtheymightpassontoterrorists.Intheirview(andmorethanadecadeofIraqiobstinacysupportsit),diplomacyandinternationalsanctionshadfailed.Iraqkickedoutuninspectorsin1998,andasidefromfiringafewerrantmissiles,theU.S.andundidnothingaboutit.Ifdiplomacywastohaveanotherchance,forcewouldhavetobeusedtogettheinspectorsbackintoIraqandthentothreatenIraqwithinvasionifitdidnotfullycooperate.It’spossiblethattheneoconshadaplanfromtheverybeginningtoattackBaghdadandcorrectthemistaketheybelievedBush’sfathermadein1991bynotgettingridofSaddamHussein.Maybeforeignpolicyisallaboutbloodfeudsandpersonalelitepolitics.Butmaybeitisnot.TheBushadministrationmayhavehonestlybelieved,basedonarealistassessmentofwhatdrivesbehaviorininternationalaffairs,thatamuchstrongerutilizationofforcewasnecessarytomakediplomacyandinternationalinstitutionswork.
Andinasignificantwaytheywereright.DeployinganinvasionforceinthePersianGulfinfall2002achievedwhatmissilefiringsin1998failedtoachieve.InspectorsreturnedtoIraq.Diplomacywasgivenanotherchance.NowtheissuewashowmuchtimetogivetheinspectorstotrackdownsuspectedwmdandwhetherintheendtotrustSaddamHusseinandthejudgmentoftheSecurityCouncilthatIraqhadfullyandverifiablydisarmed.Complicatingmattersfurther,aswarsupporterssawit,wasthefactthatFranceandRussia,eachofwhichhasavetoonSecurityCouncilaction,hadsubstantialeconomicstakesinIraq,bothlegitimateintheformofcommercialcontractsandillegitimateintheformofbribesextractedundertheunoil-for-foodprogram.
OpponentsofthedecisiontogotowarmadethecaseforcontinuinginspectionsandrequiringinternationalagreementintheSecurityCounciltolegitimizetheuseofforce.Theywerenotopposedtotheuseofforce,anymorethanBushorBlairofficialswereopposedtotheroleofinspectorsanddiplomacy.But,assessingthesituationmorefromaliberalperspectivethatemphasizesdiplomacyandinternationalagreement,theybelieved,asHansBlixintimatedinhisreport,thatSaddamHusseinhadgonealongwaytosatisfytheinternationalcommunitythathehadnowmdandwouldclarifyremaininguncertaintiesifhewasgivenenoughtime.TheyweremorewillingtotrustSaddamandmoreeagertouseinternationalinstitutions,namelythevetosystemintheSecurityCouncil,todelaytheuseofforce.IftheUnitedStateswassuspectinitsdesirefordiplomacy—justawaystationtowardwar,ascriticscontended—unofficialsandwaropponentsweresuspectintheirwillingnesstouseforce—notalastbutapastresort(nolongerapplicableinmodern-dayinternationalaffairs).Criticsofthewarneveracknowledgedthataninvasionforcewasnecessarytoretrievethediplomaticoptionofuninspectors.But,equally,supportersofthewarnevermadeclearwhatevidencefrominspectionswouldultimatelysatisfythemthatIraqhadfullydisarmed.Thereluctanceofbothopponentsandsupportersofwartocomecleanreflectstheirrelativepreferencefortheuseofdiplomacyandforce.Itisamatterofemphasisandperspective,notofbadfaithandpolitics.
OtheranalystsemphasizetheroleofactoridentitiesandseethewardeterminedlargelybySaddam’sparanoia.WasSaddamreallybentonacquiringnuclearweaponswhenwefindouthehadnone?Washeeventuallywillingtocomplywithinternationalinspectionsandruleswhenhedancedaroundtheinspectorssomanytimes?MaybetheissueforSaddamwasnotwmdperse,asrealistperspectivessawit,orcomplyingwithinternationalrules,asliberalperspectivessawit,butIraqoperatingaccordingtoanideologicalandnormativecodethatalienateditfromtherestoftheworld.Iraq,inshort,actedinaccordancewiththedictatesofitsparanoidpoliticsandrulerratherthananintentiontoacquirewmdoreventuallysatisfyuninspectors.
SomeevidenceforthisideationalviewofIraq’sbehaviorexists.OneofthegreatmysteriesoftheIraqwariswhySaddamHusseingaveupeverything,includingeventuallyhislife,fornothing,sincehehadnowmd.Thisissomethingrealistssaidhewouldneverdo.Hewasasurvivor,notsuicidal.Yet,ifheknewhedidnothavewmd,whydidheriskhisregimepretendinghedid?Abluffmayberational,butnotifitispressedtothepointofbeingcalled.Perhapshedidnotknowwhetherhehadwmd,whichthensuggestshewasdisconnectedfromhisownregimeaswellastheinternationalcommunity.Orperhapshejustdidn’tbelievetheU.S.anditsallieswouldattack,orthatFrance,Russia,andothersupporterswouldletthemattack.Diplomacywouldsavehisregime.Butallofthesespeculationssuggestthathewasoutoftouch;that,asidentityperspectivesargue,therewasnosignificantshareddiscourseorknowledgebetweenSaddamHusseinandotherplayersthatmighthaveledtoapeacefulresolutionofthedisputethroughcommonunderstandings.Liberalandrealistfactors—diplomacyandevenrationaldeterrencebyforce—neverhadachancetoworkbecauseidentityfactorsoverrodethem.
Thesameidentityperspective,ofcourse,canbeusedtoexplainU.S.behavior.Theneoconswereoutoftouchandneverseriouslyconsideredhowbigthethreatwasandhowmanytroopswouldbeneededtocontendwithit,whichrealistperspectivesstressed,orwhatspecificresultsoftheinspectionprocesstheywouldaccept,whichliberalperspectivesstressed.Theyweredrivenallalongbyanideologicalviewoftheworldthatdistrustedotherstatesandinternationalnegotiatorsunlesstheyweresimilarlyideologicallyoriented.Thisidentityperspective,itmightbeargued,alsodrivestheBushdoctrineofdemocratizingIraqandtheMiddleEastregion.Apeacefulsolutiontowmdorseriouspoliticaldisputes,suchastheArab-Israelidispute,isunlikely,accordingtothisview,unlessthegovernmentsintheregionsharemorefundamentalvaluesincludingpluralism,humanrights,andtheruleoflaw.
Analystsemployingaliberalperspectiveassumediplomacyandinstitutionscanworkinspiteofsuchideologicalorregimedifferences.Indeed,theyargue,that’sthewholepointofdiplomacy.AstheIraqStudyGroupargued,youtalkwithyourenemiesinparticular.Analystswhoseetheworldmoreinidentitythaninstitutionalterms,however,wonderwhichcountriescanbecountedontoensurethatdiplomaticagreementsareimplemented,especiallyininstitutionsthataredividedamongcountriesofdifferentideologicalpersuasionsandaffinities.Stillotheranalysts,whoseetheworldinrealistterms,concludethatallthetalkaboutideologyanddemocracyisjustthat,talk.Ideasareepiphenomenalandotherinterestsmattermore.NeoconsandBushsimplydisguisedtheirrealmotives—todeposeHusseinandsettleoldscores—withalotofrationalizationaboutwmdanddemocracy.Whennowmdwerefound,theyshiftedtheirrationaletopromotingfreedomanddemocracy.
Compare,evaluate,prioritize
Perspectivesprovideapowerfultoolforunderstandingwhywedisagreeaboutforeignpolicy.Theyilluminatenotonlycontemporarybuthistoricaldebates.10Peopleofgoodfaithdifferinthejudgmentstheymakeabouttheprincipalcausesofworldevents.Seriousanalystsconsiderallperspectivesandgatherasmanyfactsfromeachperspectiveastheycan.Buttheycannevergatherallthefacts,andtheymuststillinterpretwhichfactsaremoreimportantthanothers.Justastheyarecondemnedtoselectsomethinginordertounderstandanything,theyarealsocondemnedtomakedifferentjudgmentsandthustodisagree.
Yes,itispossibleandnecessarytonarrowdisagreements,toformulatehypothesesfromdifferentperspectivesabouthowtheworldworks,andtolookfornewfactsthatcanadjudicatebetweenalternativepropositions.Thatisthescientificmethod,andallseriouspeopleuseit.Butscientificmethodisnottruth.Itisatooltoanalyzeinarationalistorpositivistmanneraninfinitelycomplicatedworld.Evennaturalscientistsdemurfromdeclaringthattheyhavediscoveredthetruth.Theymaydemonstratethatapropositionisnotfalse,thatis,itseemstobeconsistentwiththewaytheworldis.Butallgoodnaturalscientistsknowthattheirpropositionsdonotcapturetherealworldasitactuallyis.Analternativepropositionmayalsobeconsistentwiththeirresults.Inphysics,quantummechanicsexplainssubatomicphenomenaonthebasisofprobability,whileNewtonianmechanicsexplainsplanetaryphenomenaonthebasisoffixedbodies.Boththeoriesworkwithintheirdomains,buttheworldstheypostulatearecompletelyincompatible.Theactualworldisobviouslysomethingdifferentfromeithertheory.SophysicistandmathematiciansarelookingforanothertheorythatmighttellusaboutaworldwhichaccountsforbothNewtonianandquantummechanicsandmuchmore.That’sstringtheory,butthere’snoguaranteethatitwillbethefinalwordeither.Ifwehavethatmuchtroubleknowingthewaythenaturalworldactuallyworks,whosepartsdonothaveawilloftheirown,shouldn’twebemoremodestaboutwhatwecanknowaboutthesocialworldofinternationalpolitics?
Thesocialsciences,especiallyworldaffairs,aremuchmorecomplicated.Thesubjectstheystudy—humanbeings—dohavemindsoftheirown,andtheycananddooftenchangetheirmindsonawhim.Howdowecapturethelawsbywhichsuchaworldworks?Forthemostpart,wedon’t.Weadoptdifferentperspectives,gatherfactssuggestedbythoseperspectives,compare,evaluate,andultimatelyprioritizethosefacts.Intheprocesswemakedifferentjudgmentsandgiveweighttodifferentperspectives.Themiracleisthatwedon’tdisagreemorethanweactuallydo.
Politicsworksagainsttherecognitionoftheroleofperspectives.Eachsideinsiststhatthefactsspeakforthemselveswhenthefactsfavoritsinterpretation.LeeHamilton,arespectedformerDemocraticcongressmanandco-chairofthe9/11Commission,gavearecentexample.AppearingataSeptember11,2006,pressconferencewithhisRepublicanco-chairofthe9/11Commission,ThomasKean,Hamiltonsaid:“FactsarenotRepublican,andthey’renotDemocratic.They’renotideological.Factsarefacts.”But,revealingly,hemadethiscommenttorebukehisRepublicanco-chair;theywerehavingadisputeaboutthefactsinanabcdocudrama,“ThePathto9/11.”FactsmaynotbeRepublicanorDemocratic,buttheyhavetobeinterpretedbyRepublicansandDemocrats.Hamiltonsaidwhatweallsaywhenwewanttoclaimthefactsforourpointofview.Wesaythefactsareaslamdunk.Buttheyneverare.
Giventhesecomplexities,couldwebemoremodest?Couldwetonedownthepersonalizationofdebate,aswellasallattemptstobeateachotherupwith“the”facts.Ouropponentsonanissuearenotstupidorevil.Theyspeakfromadifferentperspective,andwecanlistencarefullytothemtodivinehowandwheretheyemphasizeandevaluatefactsdifferentlythanwedo.DavidBrooks,therespectedNewYorkTimescolumnist,demonstrateshowwealluseperspectiveswhenwepresentourownconclusions.AskingaboutcurrentleadersinIran,hewrote(September21,2006):
Dotheyrespondtoincentivesandfollowthedictatesofwhatwecallself-interest?...Or,alternatively,aretheyplayinganentirelydifferentgame?ArethemenwhooccupytheblackholethatistheIranianpowereliteengagedinareligiousenterprisebasedonaneschatologicaltimeframeanddrivenbysupernaturallongingswecan’tbegintofathom?
Brooksisaddressingandcontrastingtherealist(materialself-interest)andidentity(religiousaspirations)perspectivesonIranianleadership.Inthesamearticle,hementionsathirdperspective,theliberalone.Manyintellectualelites,hewrites,counselacodeofcautiontowardtheIranianleadership:“Betolerantofculturaldifferences,seektounderstandtheresponsesofpeoplewhofeeloppressed,don’tjudgegroups,nevercriticizesomebodyelse’sreligion.”Theseareallrespectablewaystoaddressanenormouslycomplicatedproblem.Buttheyarenotcompatiblewithoneanother.Wehavetochoose.Brooksmakeshischoices:
TheMuslimmillenarianspossessahabitofmindthatcausesthemtoescalateconflicts....Theyseemconfidenttheycanprevail,owingtotheirwillingnesstodiefortheirtruth.Theydon’tseemtofeelmarginalizedbutlookdownonusasweak,anddoubtourabilitytostrikeback....WithAmericaexhaustedbyIraq,...Westernpolicyisdriftingtowardtheoption...thatiscontainment....Inotherwords,apolicythatwasdesignedtoconfrontasecular,bureaucraticfoe—theSoviets—willnowbeusedtoconfrontasurging,jihadistone.
ForBrooks,“ahabitofmind,”“asurging,jihadistone,”anidentityperspectivedrivesMuslimfundamentalists.Themillenariansdonotfeel“marginalized”becausetheyareweakorexcludedbyinternationaldiplomacyandinstitutions,asaliberalpointofviewmightemphasize.Rathertheyfeelstrongandempoweredbytheirideas,“theirtruth,”andarewillingtodieforit.Sotheywon’tbestoppedbyrealiststrategiesthattrytocontainorcounterbalancethem.Theirideasprecludecompromiseanddeterrence.
OtherswillcertainlydisagreewithBrooks.Buttheywilldosobymakingdifferentjudgmentsaboutthesamefacts.Theymayarguethatthejihadistmind-setcomesfrommarginalizationofIslamicgrievancesinthepastandmaybealleviatedbyinclusionandcompromiseinthefuture.Ortheymayconcludethatideologicalmind-setsdoeventuallyrespondtocontainmentandmaterialcounterpressures,justasGeorgeKennanpredictedin1947thatcommunistfundamentalistswouldeventuallymellowiftheUnitedStatescontainedSovietexpansioninEurope.
Thesedifferingjudgmentsarealllogicalandcanbeunderstoodwithoutdisparagingourpoliticalopponents.Indeed,onecanevenarguetheyareallnecessaryifwearegoingtoseetheworldinasmanydifferentwaysaspossible,becausewecannotseeitasitactuallyis.Whileeachofus,asamoralhumanbeing,hastomakeachoice,allofustogethercanbenefitfromthedifferences.Wecanthankthepeoplewedisagreewithbecausetheyremindusthatnoneofushasacorneronthetruenatureoftheworldweinhabit,especiallytheworldofforeignaffairs.