一：课文主要内容
1、the fefinition of a word comprises the following pionts:1>a minimal free from of a language.2>a sound of unithy.3>a unite of meaning.4>a form that can function alone in a sentence.2、a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.3\ a word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world.4\this symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary,and there is 'no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself'.4\ sound and form :1>the internal reason for this is that the english alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do bouble duty or work together in combination.2>another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years,and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.3>a third reason is that some of the differences were created by the earsly scribes.4>finally comes the borrowing,which is important channel of enriching the english vocabulary.5\ in spite of the differences,at least eighty percent of the english words fit consistent spelling pattern.6\vocabulary: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary.7\ basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary:the basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language .though words of the basic stock constitute a small percentage of the english vocabulary,yet it is the most important part of it. obvious characteristics:1>all national character.2>stability .3>polysemy .4>productivity.5>collocability.8\ stability :as they denote the commonest things necessary to life,they are likely to remain unchanged .stability ,however,is only relative.actually,the basic word stock has been undergoing some changes.9\ productivity:words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words10\ polysemy: words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning.11\ of course ,not all words of the basic word stock have these characteristics.12\ "all national character"is the most important of all features that may differences words of common use from all others.13\ jargaon : jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts,sciences,trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business.14\ by notion, words can be grouped into content words and functional words.15\ functional words do far more work of expression in english on average than content words.
16\ nation words are words brought to Britain in the fifteen century by the German tribes:the Angles,the Saxons,and the Jutes,thus known as Angles-Saxon words.17\ Stylistically,natives words are neither formal nor informal whereas the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary and learded,thus appropriate in fromal style.18\ words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or load words or borrowed in simple terms.19\ it is estimated that english borrowing constitute 80percent of the modern english vocabulary.20\ the english language is not the language of the early inhabitants of the British Isles.21\ the first people known to inhabit the land were Celts.22\ the second major language known in england was the latin of the Roman Legions In 55-54B.C23\ after the Romans,the Germanic tribes called Angles,Saxons and Jutes came in great numbers.24\ now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English.25\ however ,users of Old English did not borrow as heavily from Latin or other language in this period as they did later.26\ Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60.000 words.27\ but the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English28\ the situation of three languages existing simultaneously continued for over a century.29\Langland and others,between 1250 and 1500 about 9.000 words of French origin poured into English .Seventy-five percent of them are still in use today.30\ Middle English retained much fewer inflections.Endings of nouns and adjectives marking distinction of number,case and often of gender lost their distinctive froms.31\ Moden English began with the establishment of printing in England.32\ in the early period of Modern English,Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancient Creek and Roman classics.this is known in history as the Renaissance.33\ in the mid-seventeenth century,English experienced the Bourgeois Revolution followed by the Industrial Revolution and rose to be a great economic power.34\ since the beginning of this century,particularly after World War II, the world has seen breathtaking advances in science and technology.as a rezult,thousands and thousands of new words have been created to express new ideas,inventions,and scientific achievement.although borrowing remained an important channel of vocabulary expansion,yet more words are created by means of words-formation. now new words are multiplied in all walks of life.35\ modes of vocabulary development:1> Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely roots,affixes and other elements.2>Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.3>Borrowing has plays a vital role in the development of vocabulary,particularly in earlier times.36\ it seems to be generally agreed that a word is the smallest unit of a language that stands alone to communicate meaning.37\ Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.there mophemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. we might as well say that free morphemes are free roots.38\ morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.
39\ these examples show clearly that bound morphemes include two types:bound root and affix.
40\ bound root:as illustrated by the example antecedent,a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root.unlike a free foor,it is a bound form and has to combine with other moephemes to make words.41\ dictionary are all derived from the root-dict-.in English ,bound roots are either Latin or Greek.42\ Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function inflectional and derivational affixes
43\ inflectional affixes.affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are
inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.
44\ derivational affixes.as the term indicates.derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words45\ root is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.46\ therefore,astem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.47\ the expansion of vocabulary in moden english depends chiefly on word-formation.there is a variety of means being at work now.the most productive are affixation,compounding and conversion.
48\ talking about word-forming patterns means dealing with rules. but a rule of word-formation usually differs from a syntactic rule.not all the words that are producced by applying the rule are acceptable.
49\rules themselves are not fixed but undergo changes to a certain extent.50\affixation is generally defined as the formation od words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stem.this process is also known as derivation.51 according to the positions which affixes occupy in words,affixation falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.52\ prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems,prefixation do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.53 their chief function is to change meanings of the stems.54\suffixation mainly change the word class.therefore,we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes,verb suffixes,abjective suffixes.55\phonetic features in compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.
56\the meanings of such examples cannot be easily inferred from the two companents of the compounds.
57\ compounding can take place within any of the word classes,e.g.prepositions as without,throughtout;conjumctions as however,moreover;pronouns as aneself,somebody; but the productive ones are nouns and adjectives followed by verbs to a much lesser extent.58\ conversion is the formation of new words bby converting words of one class to another class.59\ words produced by conversion are primarily nouns,adjectives,and verbs.the most produtive,however,is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.60\ ver to noun . almost all monomorphemic verbs can be used as nouns.61\some are completely converted,thus known as full conversion,other are only partially converted,hence partial conversion.62\ most verbs converted from adjectives have both transitive and intransitive functions.63\ in some cases,conversion is accompanied by certain changes which affect pronunciation or spelling or stress distribution.64\this stress shift occurs usually in two syllable words.when used as a noun.65\ blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.66\ as far as the structure is concerned,blends fall into four major group:1>head+tail;2>head+head3>head +word;4>word +tail67\ the overwhelming majority of blends are nouns:68 anoyher common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.this is called clipping.68\ in modern times,people tend to be economical in writing and speech to keep up with the tempo of new life style.to save time one is likely to clip words that are frequently used.69\acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the intial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.
70\initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.71\ acronyms are words formel from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.72\ back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.
73\ back-farmation is therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.
74\ words that are commonized from proper nouns have rich cultural associations and thus stylistically vivid,impressive and thought-provoking.75\ words are but symbols,many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference.76\ the reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional.77\in many cases meaning is used in the sense of 'concept'.
78\ every word that has meaning has sense(not every word has reference).79\ and most words can be said to be non-motivated .that is ,the connection of the sign and meaning does not have a logical explanation.80\semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by tthe conceptual meaning of a word.81\ grammatical meaning of a word becomes important only when it is used in actual context.82\ on the other hand,the same word way have different grammatical meanings as shown in forgetforgets forgot forgotten forgetting.83\ lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning.84\ conceptual meaning(also known as denotative meaning)is the meaning given in the dictianary are forms the core of word-meaning.four types:connotative,stylistic ,affective,andcollocative.
85\ connotative meaning:in contrast to denotative meaning,connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associayion suggested by the conceptual meaning,traditionally known as connotations.
86\words that have emotive values way fall into twocategories appreciative or prejorative.
87\ polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural language.88\ two apptoaches to polysemy:the problem fo interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt with from two different angles:diachronic approach and synchronic approach.89\ two processes of development: the development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two course,traditionally known as radiation and concatenation.90\ types of homonyms: bases on the degree of similarity , homonyms fall into three classes:perfect homonyms,homographs nad homophones.
91\origins of homonyms: there are various sources of homonyms:change in sound nad spelling,borrowing.92\synonyms can be defind as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.93\ types of synonymssynonyms can be classified into two major groups:absolute synonyms and relative synonyms.94\ sources of synonyms:1\borrowing.2\dialects and regional english .3\figurative and euphemistic use of words.4\coincidence with idiomatic expressions.
95\discrimination of synonms:generally speaking,there is no difference between absolute synonyms wheres relative synonyms always differ in one way or another,the differences between synonyms boil down to tree areas:denotation,connotation,and application.
96\ the verb understand is used in a much more extended sence than comprehend.whatever is comprehended is understood,but in many cases,comprehend cannot take the place of understand.
97\ antonymy: antonymy is concerned with semantic opposition.antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.there are a variety of 'oppotiteness'.they can be classified into three major groups:1>contradictory terms.2>contrary terms.3>relative terms.98\ hyponymy: hyponymy deal with the relationship of semantic inclusion.99\ there was fins rock-chair that this father used to sit in,a desk where he wrote letters,a nest of small tables ans a dark,imposing boolcase.now all this furniture was to be sold,and with it his own past.100\ vacabulary is the most unstable of a language as it is undergoing constant both in from and content.101\ almost every word we use today has a slightly different meaning from the one it had a century ago.102\ word-meaning changes by modes of extension,narrowing,degradation,elevation,and transter.of these,extension and narrowing are by far the most common.103\norrowing of meaning,also called specialization,is the opposite of widening meaning.
104\ marshal and constable meant a 'keeper of horses'.but now have risen to a 'high-ranking army officer 'and 'policeman' respectively. 105\ extra-linguistic factors: 1>historical reson.2>class reason.3>psychological reason.106\ context is very important for the understanding of word-meaning because the meaning is influenced immediately by the liguistic context,and in many cases by the whole speech situation as well.107\ context there is generally no danger of missinterpretation,for meaning lives in context defines meaning.108\ context is used in fiffefrent senses .in a narrow sense,it refers to the words ,clauses,sentences in which a word appears.109\ context includes the physical situation as well .this is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic tontext.,which embraces the people,time ,place ,and even the whole cultural background.110\ lingyuistic context can be subbdivided into lexical context and grammatical context.111\ lexical context this context referes to the words that occur together with the word in qustion.the meaning of the words is often affected and definded by the neighbouring words.
112\ the role of context:1>elimination of ambiguity 2>indication of referents 3>provision of clues for inferring word-meaning.113\ strictly speaking,idioms are eapressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of indevidual elements,in a broad sense,idioms may include colloquialisms,catchphrases,slang expression, proverbs.114\ characteristics od idioms:1>semantic unity.2>structural stability115\structural stability:1>unlike free phrases ,the structure of an idiom is to a large extent unchangeable.the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced.2>the word order cannot be inverted or changed.3>the constituents of an idiom cannot be deleted or added to ,not even an article.4>many idioms are grammatically unanalysable.116\ classification of idions:1> idioms nominal in nature:white elephant(a+n),flesh and blood(n+conj+n).2> idioms adjectival in nature: cut and dried(a+a) .as poor as a church mouse(as+a+as+n) .up in the air(adv+prep+n)117\ a large proportion of idioms were first created by working people such as seamen on the sea,hunters in the woods,farmer in the fields,workmen at mills,housewives and cooks in the kitchen and so on .
二：题型举例
1\ each of the statements below is followed by four alternative.Choose the one that would best complete the statements.1) A word is <a minimal free form >of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2) the relationship between the soud and meaning of a word is <arbitrary but conventional>.3) in different language,the same concept can be represented by <same sound>and same sound can show different meaning.4)old english refers to the language used between the years <4500 and 1150>5) <all national character>is the most important of all features of the basic words.6) words may fall into native words and borrowed words by <origin>7) of the following ,functional words are <articles,prepositions,conjunctions>8)the first people known to inhabit on British Isles were <Celts>
9) after the Norman Conquest a continual flow of <french> words into the English vocabulary.10) Moben English begun with the estabishment fo <printing>in English.11)Moden English vacabulary develops through <creation ,semantic change ,borrowing>12)Morphemes which can't occur as separate words ars known as <bound morphemes>13) in the word"contradtion",the morphems"-dict"is <bound root>14) the expansion of vocabulary in moden english depends chiefly on <word-formation>15) <derivation>is the fomation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.16) the chief function of prefixes is< modify the meaning of the stem>17)Nouns converted from adjectives have all the characteristics of nouns and achieve a full status,this know as <full conversion>.18) Back-formation is the process of creating words by <removing the supposed suffixes>19) Every word that has meaning has <sense>,but not every word has <refrence>20) homophones are words identical only in <sound>but fifferent in the two other aspects.21) Degradation or prejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic<elevation>22) "silly"meant"happy"in old ,but now it means "foolish",this code of word-meaning change is <degradation>23) <context>is very important for the understanding of the meaning of a word.
24) a large proportion of idioms were first created by <the working people>25) in the idiom,"failure is the mother of success",the figure of speech employed <personification>.26) Words may fall into the basic stock and non-basic vacabulary by < use frequency>27) Middle english refers to the language used between the years<1150>and <1500>28) which of the following words is used a functional word?<though>29) the words borrowed from french or latin sre mostly<formal>30) it is generally observed that the number of the present day english vocabulary is about<one million>31) <the efforts of linguists>is not the reason of growth of present-day english vacabulary.32) the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words is called <morpheme>
33) the following words "bird""earth""work""stay""pencil"belong to <free roots>
34) the chief function of suffixes is to <change the word class of the stem>35) in compounds,the word stress usually occurs on <the first element>,whereas in noun phrases<the second element>is generally stressed if there is only one stress.36) <conversion> is the formation new words by converting words of one class to another class.37) motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and <its meaning>38) extension refers to the widening of meaning which somewords undergo.
39) <Synonyms> are words which have the same or every nearly the essential meaning.40) the original meaning of "shrewd"is "evil"or "wickedness'while its present-day meaning is "clever".thhis is <elevation >of word-meaning41) <polysemy,homonymy,grammatical structure>often lead to ambiguity.
42) homograhps are words identical only in <spelling>but fiferent in the two aspects.
2\ decide whether the following statements are ture or false.write "T"for true and "F"for false in the brackets.
1) derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.<F>
2) most verbs converted from adjectivs have both transitive and intransitive grammatical funtions.<F>
3) degradation refers to the process by which words rise from humblebeginnings to position of importance.<F>4) the conversion between nouns and verbs may involve a change of stress.<T>
5) like free phrases,the structure of an idiom is to a large extent chageable<F>6) a word is the minimal meaningful unit of a language .<F>7) Idioms are phrases or short sentences whose meaning can be easily understood from the individual words.<F>8)Acronyms are words made up of initial letters which,however,are pronounced common words.<T>9)the englsh language is just the language of the early inhabitants of the British isles.<F>10) in modern times,borrowing is the most important way of the english vacabulary expansion.<F>11) suffixes primary function is to change the grammtical function of stems.<T>12) words may be classified into content words and funtional words by use frequency.<F>
13) generally,there are three main sources of new words；the rapid devenopment of modern science and technology;social ,economic and political changes;the influence of other cultures and language.<T>
14) compounding,also called composition,is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.<T>15)in thedevelopment of the cvocabulary,some old words fell out of use.<T>16) there are always exceptions while the word formation rules are applied.<T>17) like free phrases,the structure of an idiom is to a large extent changeble<F>18> elevation refers to the process by which words rise from hunble beginings to position of importance.<T>
3\ complete the following statements with proper words or expression
1\)almost all affixes are <bound > morphemes because few can be used as independent words.
2) the word <minister> in its early past meant"servant",but is now elevated to mean"head of a ministry".
3) <blending>is the formation od new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.4) derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and <suffixes>.
5) the relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary and <convertion>.
6)< conceptual>meaning is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning.
7) "silly"which used to mean "happy"has come to denote"foolish".this is the degradation of word meaning.
4\match the affixes in column A with the words in column B with lines.
A B A B
en- wave in- courage
micro- wrap dis- stop
dis- courage il- expensive
un- tell non- lingual
re- like bi- literate
-ee marry -ish free
-ism perform -en employ
-ance relation -dom construct
-age employ -ee child
ship terror -ion sharp
4\ study the following sentences and fill in the blanks with proper words given in the brackets.
1) he spends much of his spare time in reading<books>,usually,<novels>.(novels , books)
2) is this rule for all <vehicles>or only for<buses>>?(vehicles,buses)
3) is <baseball>the wost popular<sport>in your country throughout the year?(haseball , sports)
4) evryday we need to eat a lot of <vegetables>, such as <cabbages>spinach,tomatoes and so on.(cabbages,vegetables)
5) is the man you talked to just now in the hospital a <dentist>or another kind of <doctor>?(doctor ,dentist)
6) he spends much of his spare time in visiting his <relatives>, especially,his<uncle.>(uncle,relatives)
7) on Valentine's Day it is a custom in western countries for young men to send<flowes >to their girlfriends ,usually,<roses>(flowers ,rose)
8) did he only sell the <furniture> or all the <rocking-chair>that would remind him of his late father?(rocking-chair,furniture)
9) let's have some <dessert>! how about <ice-cream>(dessert , ice-cream)
10) is the man you want to see so much this afternoon a/an <painter> or another kind of <artist>(paiter , artist)
5\ study the foolowing words and expressions and identify:1>types of bound morphemes underlind;2>types of word formation;3>types of meaning and ;4)types of meaning af idiom.
1 aunt-sister of one's parent( ) 2 hand in hand ( )
3 english-speaking( ) 4 beggar to beg( )
5 classroom( ) 6 antecedent( )
7 disappear( ) 8 invented ( )
9 smog( ) 10 predictable( )
11 mother-female parent( ) 12 day and day( )
13 e-mail( ) 14 dictionary( )
15 easy-going ( ) 16 lazy to lazy( )
17 retell ( ) 18 shortest ( )
19 editor to edit ( ) 20 refrigeration to fridge ( )
6\ define the following terms with at least tow exmples each.
1) Blending : blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. for example: smoke + fog----smog motor+hotel-----motel
2) Back-formation: back-formation is consifered to be the opposite process of suffixation. for example: emate---emotion
laze----lazy
3) conversion: conversion is the formation of new words by converting word of one class to another class.
for example: spring(n.v) doubt(n,v)
4)Affixation: affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or dervational affixes to
stem,this process is also know as derivation. for example: dislike invention
1、the fefinition of a word comprises the following pionts:1>a minimal free from of a language.2>a sound of unithy.3>a unite of meaning.4>a form that can function alone in a sentence.2、a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.3\ a word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world.4\this symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary,and there is 'no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself'.4\ sound and form :1>the internal reason for this is that the english alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do bouble duty or work together in combination.2>another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years,and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.3>a third reason is that some of the differences were created by the earsly scribes.4>finally comes the borrowing,which is important channel of enriching the english vocabulary.5\ in spite of the differences,at least eighty percent of the english words fit consistent spelling pattern.6\vocabulary: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary.7\ basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary:the basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language .though words of the basic stock constitute a small percentage of the english vocabulary,yet it is the most important part of it. obvious characteristics:1>all national character.2>stability .3>polysemy .4>productivity.5>collocability.8\ stability :as they denote the commonest things necessary to life,they are likely to remain unchanged .stability ,however,is only relative.actually,the basic word stock has been undergoing some changes.9\ productivity:words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words10\ polysemy: words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning.11\ of course ,not all words of the basic word stock have these characteristics.12\ "all national character"is the most important of all features that may differences words of common use from all others.13\ jargaon : jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts,sciences,trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business.14\ by notion, words can be grouped into content words and functional words.15\ functional words do far more work of expression in english on average than content words.
16\ nation words are words brought to Britain in the fifteen century by the German tribes:the Angles,the Saxons,and the Jutes,thus known as Angles-Saxon words.17\ Stylistically,natives words are neither formal nor informal whereas the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary and learded,thus appropriate in fromal style.18\ words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or load words or borrowed in simple terms.19\ it is estimated that english borrowing constitute 80percent of the modern english vocabulary.20\ the english language is not the language of the early inhabitants of the British Isles.21\ the first people known to inhabit the land were Celts.22\ the second major language known in england was the latin of the Roman Legions In 55-54B.C23\ after the Romans,the Germanic tribes called Angles,Saxons and Jutes came in great numbers.24\ now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English.25\ however ,users of Old English did not borrow as heavily from Latin or other language in this period as they did later.26\ Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60.000 words.27\ but the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English28\ the situation of three languages existing simultaneously continued for over a century.29\Langland and others,between 1250 and 1500 about 9.000 words of French origin poured into English .Seventy-five percent of them are still in use today.30\ Middle English retained much fewer inflections.Endings of nouns and adjectives marking distinction of number,case and often of gender lost their distinctive froms.31\ Moden English began with the establishment of printing in England.32\ in the early period of Modern English,Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancient Creek and Roman classics.this is known in history as the Renaissance.33\ in the mid-seventeenth century,English experienced the Bourgeois Revolution followed by the Industrial Revolution and rose to be a great economic power.34\ since the beginning of this century,particularly after World War II, the world has seen breathtaking advances in science and technology.as a rezult,thousands and thousands of new words have been created to express new ideas,inventions,and scientific achievement.although borrowing remained an important channel of vocabulary expansion,yet more words are created by means of words-formation. now new words are multiplied in all walks of life.35\ modes of vocabulary development:1> Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely roots,affixes and other elements.2>Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.3>Borrowing has plays a vital role in the development of vocabulary,particularly in earlier times.36\ it seems to be generally agreed that a word is the smallest unit of a language that stands alone to communicate meaning.37\ Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.there mophemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. we might as well say that free morphemes are free roots.38\ morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.
39\ these examples show clearly that bound morphemes include two types:bound root and affix.
40\ bound root:as illustrated by the example antecedent,a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root.unlike a free foor,it is a bound form and has to combine with other moephemes to make words.41\ dictionary are all derived from the root-dict-.in English ,bound roots are either Latin or Greek.42\ Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function inflectional and derivational affixes
43\ inflectional affixes.affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are
inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.
44\ derivational affixes.as the term indicates.derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words45\ root is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.46\ therefore,astem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.47\ the expansion of vocabulary in moden english depends chiefly on word-formation.there is a variety of means being at work now.the most productive are affixation,compounding and conversion.
48\ talking about word-forming patterns means dealing with rules. but a rule of word-formation usually differs from a syntactic rule.not all the words that are producced by applying the rule are acceptable.
49\rules themselves are not fixed but undergo changes to a certain extent.50\affixation is generally defined as the formation od words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stem.this process is also known as derivation.51 according to the positions which affixes occupy in words,affixation falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.52\ prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems,prefixation do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.53 their chief function is to change meanings of the stems.54\suffixation mainly change the word class.therefore,we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes,verb suffixes,abjective suffixes.55\phonetic features in compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.
56\the meanings of such examples cannot be easily inferred from the two companents of the compounds.
57\ compounding can take place within any of the word classes,e.g.prepositions as without,throughtout;conjumctions as however,moreover;pronouns as aneself,somebody; but the productive ones are nouns and adjectives followed by verbs to a much lesser extent.58\ conversion is the formation of new words bby converting words of one class to another class.59\ words produced by conversion are primarily nouns,adjectives,and verbs.the most produtive,however,is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.60\ ver to noun . almost all monomorphemic verbs can be used as nouns.61\some are completely converted,thus known as full conversion,other are only partially converted,hence partial conversion.62\ most verbs converted from adjectives have both transitive and intransitive functions.63\ in some cases,conversion is accompanied by certain changes which affect pronunciation or spelling or stress distribution.64\this stress shift occurs usually in two syllable words.when used as a noun.65\ blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.66\ as far as the structure is concerned,blends fall into four major group:1>head+tail;2>head+head3>head +word;4>word +tail67\ the overwhelming majority of blends are nouns:68 anoyher common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.this is called clipping.68\ in modern times,people tend to be economical in writing and speech to keep up with the tempo of new life style.to save time one is likely to clip words that are frequently used.69\acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the intial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.
70\initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.71\ acronyms are words formel from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.72\ back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.
73\ back-farmation is therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.
74\ words that are commonized from proper nouns have rich cultural associations and thus stylistically vivid,impressive and thought-provoking.75\ words are but symbols,many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference.76\ the reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional.77\in many cases meaning is used in the sense of 'concept'.
78\ every word that has meaning has sense(not every word has reference).79\ and most words can be said to be non-motivated .that is ,the connection of the sign and meaning does not have a logical explanation.80\semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by tthe conceptual meaning of a word.81\ grammatical meaning of a word becomes important only when it is used in actual context.82\ on the other hand,the same word way have different grammatical meanings as shown in forgetforgets forgot forgotten forgetting.83\ lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning.84\ conceptual meaning(also known as denotative meaning)is the meaning given in the dictianary are forms the core of word-meaning.four types:connotative,stylistic ,affective,andcollocative.
85\ connotative meaning:in contrast to denotative meaning,connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associayion suggested by the conceptual meaning,traditionally known as connotations.
86\words that have emotive values way fall into twocategories appreciative or prejorative.
87\ polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural language.88\ two apptoaches to polysemy:the problem fo interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt with from two different angles:diachronic approach and synchronic approach.89\ two processes of development: the development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two course,traditionally known as radiation and concatenation.90\ types of homonyms: bases on the degree of similarity , homonyms fall into three classes:perfect homonyms,homographs nad homophones.
91\origins of homonyms: there are various sources of homonyms:change in sound nad spelling,borrowing.92\synonyms can be defind as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.93\ types of synonymssynonyms can be classified into two major groups:absolute synonyms and relative synonyms.94\ sources of synonyms:1\borrowing.2\dialects and regional english .3\figurative and euphemistic use of words.4\coincidence with idiomatic expressions.
95\discrimination of synonms:generally speaking,there is no difference between absolute synonyms wheres relative synonyms always differ in one way or another,the differences between synonyms boil down to tree areas:denotation,connotation,and application.
96\ the verb understand is used in a much more extended sence than comprehend.whatever is comprehended is understood,but in many cases,comprehend cannot take the place of understand.
97\ antonymy: antonymy is concerned with semantic opposition.antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.there are a variety of 'oppotiteness'.they can be classified into three major groups:1>contradictory terms.2>contrary terms.3>relative terms.98\ hyponymy: hyponymy deal with the relationship of semantic inclusion.99\ there was fins rock-chair that this father used to sit in,a desk where he wrote letters,a nest of small tables ans a dark,imposing boolcase.now all this furniture was to be sold,and with it his own past.100\ vacabulary is the most unstable of a language as it is undergoing constant both in from and content.101\ almost every word we use today has a slightly different meaning from the one it had a century ago.102\ word-meaning changes by modes of extension,narrowing,degradation,elevation,and transter.of these,extension and narrowing are by far the most common.103\norrowing of meaning,also called specialization,is the opposite of widening meaning.
104\ marshal and constable meant a 'keeper of horses'.but now have risen to a 'high-ranking army officer 'and 'policeman' respectively. 105\ extra-linguistic factors: 1>historical reson.2>class reason.3>psychological reason.106\ context is very important for the understanding of word-meaning because the meaning is influenced immediately by the liguistic context,and in many cases by the whole speech situation as well.107\ context there is generally no danger of missinterpretation,for meaning lives in context defines meaning.108\ context is used in fiffefrent senses .in a narrow sense,it refers to the words ,clauses,sentences in which a word appears.109\ context includes the physical situation as well .this is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic tontext.,which embraces the people,time ,place ,and even the whole cultural background.110\ lingyuistic context can be subbdivided into lexical context and grammatical context.111\ lexical context this context referes to the words that occur together with the word in qustion.the meaning of the words is often affected and definded by the neighbouring words.
112\ the role of context:1>elimination of ambiguity 2>indication of referents 3>provision of clues for inferring word-meaning.113\ strictly speaking,idioms are eapressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of indevidual elements,in a broad sense,idioms may include colloquialisms,catchphrases,slang expression, proverbs.114\ characteristics od idioms:1>semantic unity.2>structural stability115\structural stability:1>unlike free phrases ,the structure of an idiom is to a large extent unchangeable.the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced.2>the word order cannot be inverted or changed.3>the constituents of an idiom cannot be deleted or added to ,not even an article.4>many idioms are grammatically unanalysable.116\ classification of idions:1> idioms nominal in nature:white elephant(a+n),flesh and blood(n+conj+n).2> idioms adjectival in nature: cut and dried(a+a) .as poor as a church mouse(as+a+as+n) .up in the air(adv+prep+n)117\ a large proportion of idioms were first created by working people such as seamen on the sea,hunters in the woods,farmer in the fields,workmen at mills,housewives and cooks in the kitchen and so on .
二：题型举例
1\ each of the statements below is followed by four alternative.Choose the one that would best complete the statements.1) A word is <a minimal free form >of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2) the relationship between the soud and meaning of a word is <arbitrary but conventional>.3) in different language,the same concept can be represented by <same sound>and same sound can show different meaning.4)old english refers to the language used between the years <4500 and 1150>5) <all national character>is the most important of all features of the basic words.6) words may fall into native words and borrowed words by <origin>7) of the following ,functional words are <articles,prepositions,conjunctions>8)the first people known to inhabit on British Isles were <Celts>
9) after the Norman Conquest a continual flow of <french> words into the English vocabulary.10) Moben English begun with the estabishment fo <printing>in English.11)Moden English vacabulary develops through <creation ,semantic change ,borrowing>12)Morphemes which can't occur as separate words ars known as <bound morphemes>13) in the word"contradtion",the morphems"-dict"is <bound root>14) the expansion of vocabulary in moden english depends chiefly on <word-formation>15) <derivation>is the fomation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.16) the chief function of prefixes is< modify the meaning of the stem>17)Nouns converted from adjectives have all the characteristics of nouns and achieve a full status,this know as <full conversion>.18) Back-formation is the process of creating words by <removing the supposed suffixes>19) Every word that has meaning has <sense>,but not every word has <refrence>20) homophones are words identical only in <sound>but fifferent in the two other aspects.21) Degradation or prejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic<elevation>22) "silly"meant"happy"in old ,but now it means "foolish",this code of word-meaning change is <degradation>23) <context>is very important for the understanding of the meaning of a word.
24) a large proportion of idioms were first created by <the working people>25) in the idiom,"failure is the mother of success",the figure of speech employed <personification>.26) Words may fall into the basic stock and non-basic vacabulary by < use frequency>27) Middle english refers to the language used between the years<1150>and <1500>28) which of the following words is used a functional word?<though>29) the words borrowed from french or latin sre mostly<formal>30) it is generally observed that the number of the present day english vocabulary is about<one million>31) <the efforts of linguists>is not the reason of growth of present-day english vacabulary.32) the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words is called <morpheme>
33) the following words "bird""earth""work""stay""pencil"belong to <free roots>
34) the chief function of suffixes is to <change the word class of the stem>35) in compounds,the word stress usually occurs on <the first element>,whereas in noun phrases<the second element>is generally stressed if there is only one stress.36) <conversion> is the formation new words by converting words of one class to another class.37) motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and <its meaning>38) extension refers to the widening of meaning which somewords undergo.
39) <Synonyms> are words which have the same or every nearly the essential meaning.40) the original meaning of "shrewd"is "evil"or "wickedness'while its present-day meaning is "clever".thhis is <elevation >of word-meaning41) <polysemy,homonymy,grammatical structure>often lead to ambiguity.
42) homograhps are words identical only in <spelling>but fiferent in the two aspects.
2\ decide whether the following statements are ture or false.write "T"for true and "F"for false in the brackets.
1) derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.<F>
2) most verbs converted from adjectivs have both transitive and intransitive grammatical funtions.<F>
3) degradation refers to the process by which words rise from humblebeginnings to position of importance.<F>4) the conversion between nouns and verbs may involve a change of stress.<T>
5) like free phrases,the structure of an idiom is to a large extent chageable<F>6) a word is the minimal meaningful unit of a language .<F>7) Idioms are phrases or short sentences whose meaning can be easily understood from the individual words.<F>8)Acronyms are words made up of initial letters which,however,are pronounced common words.<T>9)the englsh language is just the language of the early inhabitants of the British isles.<F>10) in modern times,borrowing is the most important way of the english vacabulary expansion.<F>11) suffixes primary function is to change the grammtical function of stems.<T>12) words may be classified into content words and funtional words by use frequency.<F>
13) generally,there are three main sources of new words；the rapid devenopment of modern science and technology;social ,economic and political changes;the influence of other cultures and language.<T>
14) compounding,also called composition,is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.<T>15)in thedevelopment of the cvocabulary,some old words fell out of use.<T>16) there are always exceptions while the word formation rules are applied.<T>17) like free phrases,the structure of an idiom is to a large extent changeble<F>18> elevation refers to the process by which words rise from hunble beginings to position of importance.<T>
3\ complete the following statements with proper words or expression
1\)almost all affixes are <bound > morphemes because few can be used as independent words.
2) the word <minister> in its early past meant"servant",but is now elevated to mean"head of a ministry".
3) <blending>is the formation od new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.4) derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and <suffixes>.
5) the relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary and <convertion>.
6)< conceptual>meaning is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning.
7) "silly"which used to mean "happy"has come to denote"foolish".this is the degradation of word meaning.
4\match the affixes in column A with the words in column B with lines.
A B A B
en- wave in- courage
micro- wrap dis- stop
dis- courage il- expensive
un- tell non- lingual
re- like bi- literate
-ee marry -ish free
-ism perform -en employ
-ance relation -dom construct
-age employ -ee child
ship terror -ion sharp
4\ study the following sentences and fill in the blanks with proper words given in the brackets.
1) he spends much of his spare time in reading<books>,usually,<novels>.(novels , books)
2) is this rule for all <vehicles>or only for<buses>>?(vehicles,buses)
3) is <baseball>the wost popular<sport>in your country throughout the year?(haseball , sports)
4) evryday we need to eat a lot of <vegetables>, such as <cabbages>spinach,tomatoes and so on.(cabbages,vegetables)
5) is the man you talked to just now in the hospital a <dentist>or another kind of <doctor>?(doctor ,dentist)
6) he spends much of his spare time in visiting his <relatives>, especially,his<uncle.>(uncle,relatives)
7) on Valentine's Day it is a custom in western countries for young men to send<flowes >to their girlfriends ,usually,<roses>(flowers ,rose)
8) did he only sell the <furniture> or all the <rocking-chair>that would remind him of his late father?(rocking-chair,furniture)
9) let's have some <dessert>! how about <ice-cream>(dessert , ice-cream)
10) is the man you want to see so much this afternoon a/an <painter> or another kind of <artist>(paiter , artist)
5\ study the foolowing words and expressions and identify:1>types of bound morphemes underlind;2>types of word formation;3>types of meaning and ;4)types of meaning af idiom.
1 aunt-sister of one's parent( ) 2 hand in hand ( )
3 english-speaking( ) 4 beggar to beg( )
5 classroom( ) 6 antecedent( )
7 disappear( ) 8 invented ( )
9 smog( ) 10 predictable( )
11 mother-female parent( ) 12 day and day( )
13 e-mail( ) 14 dictionary( )
15 easy-going ( ) 16 lazy to lazy( )
17 retell ( ) 18 shortest ( )
19 editor to edit ( ) 20 refrigeration to fridge ( )
6\ define the following terms with at least tow exmples each.
1) Blending : blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. for example: smoke + fog----smog motor+hotel-----motel
2) Back-formation: back-formation is consifered to be the opposite process of suffixation. for example: emate---emotion
laze----lazy
3) conversion: conversion is the formation of new words by converting word of one class to another class.
for example: spring(n.v) doubt(n,v)
4)Affixation: affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or dervational affixes to
stem,this process is also know as derivation. for example: dislike invention
上面是关于英语本科《英语词汇学》的复习资料，我为了60分而奋斗，为了60分而付出了很多个日日夜夜。希望对“您”有所帮助。分为两部分：一、内容摘要；二、题型举例。